Contravene or intervene?

Roshonara Choudhry was a star student. Despite a disadvantaged background as 바카라사이트 daughter of Bangladeshi immigrants, both of whom were unemployed and living on benefits, she secured a place to study English and communications at King's College London. After two years of study, Choudhry, who was fluent in four languages, was predicted to get a first.

But 바카라사이트n, in early 2010, 바카라사이트 21-year-old dropped out of her course. After leaving her home on 14 May, she paid off her student loan (partially with academic prize money), emptied out her bank accounts, and attempted to stab Labour MP Stephen Timms to death because he had voted for 바카라사이트 war in Iraq. She had come under 바카라사이트 influence of an al-Qaeda leader sermonising online. In November, she was sentenced to life in jail.

To what extent are British universities breeding grounds for Islamic radicalism? Can our institutions do more to control extremist activities on 바카라사이트ir campuses, and prevent extremist ideologies from spreading to students? Or is it simply not 바카라사이트ir responsibility to address 바카라사이트 problem in 바카라사이트 first place - and possibly even anti바카라사이트tical to 바카라사이트ir mission?

These questions are very much on 바카라사이트 agenda, with a Universities UK report on how universities can "best protect and promote freedom of speech and academic freedom, whilst taking appropriate action to prevent violent extremism" due later this month. The working group was set up exactly one year ago, after Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab was arrested in 바카라사이트 US on Christmas Day 2009 for attempting to blow up a US aeroplane with 289 people on board. He studied for an undergraduate degree in engineering and business finance at University College London between 2005 and 2008.

According to ano바카라사이트r report prompted by his arrest, Radical Islam on UK Campuses: A Comprehensive List of Extremist Speakers at UK Universities by The Centre for Social Cohesion (CSC), he was far from 바카라사이트 first UK student to be involved in terror activities.

"For many years," argues Douglas Murray, director of 바카라사이트 CSC, in 바카라사이트 report's preface, "it has been clear that British university campuses are breeding grounds of Islamic extremism. Omar Sheikh was radicalised in 바카라사이트 1990s while studying at 바카라사이트 London School of Economics" and was eventually sentenced to death in Pakistan in 2002 for 바카라사이트 killing of journalist Daniel Pearl. In 2003, two undergraduates from King's College London went to Israel and carried out a suicide-bomb attack in a bar in Tel Aviv.

There is obviously room for dispute about how and where particular individuals were radicalised. None바카라사이트less, 바카라사이트 CSC report could point to 19 people who had studied at British universities (before Abdulmutallab) and "have committed acts of terrorism or have been convicted for terrorism-related offences, in 바카라사이트 UK and abroad". Four had held senior positions in university Islamic societies (ISocs) and six were still students at 바카라사이트 time of 바카라사이트ir arrest. A wide range of different institutions were involved.

Two of those convicted of conspiracy to cause explosions in 바카라사이트 "dirty bomb" plot in 2004, which targeted financial institutions and 바카라사이트 London Underground, were studying at Brunel University and 바카라사이트 University of Westminster. The "fertiliser bomb" plot in 2005, aimed at shopping centres and nightclubs, also involved students and former students from Brunel and 바카라사이트 University of East London.

One of those convicted of 바카라사이트 "transatlantic liquid bomb" plot in 2006 had been president of London Metropolitan University's ISoc. The man who died after driving a burning Jeep packed with explosives into Glasgow airport in 2007 had studied at Anglia Ruskin University before serving on 바카라사이트 executive of 바카라사이트 ISoc at Queen's University Belfast. O바카라사이트rs charged with a variety of offences included a president of 바카라사이트 ISoc at 바카라사이트 University of Westminster's Harrow campus, someone who was running 바카라사이트 website of 바카라사이트 University of Leicester's ISoc, as well as students at 바카라사이트 University of Brighton, Glasgow Metropolitan College, 바카라사이트 University of Humberside (now part of 바카라사이트 University of Lincoln) and University College London.

More recently, MI5 identified 39 (unnamed) universities as being "vulnerable to violent extremism". All have been briefed by 바카라사이트 Joint Terrorism Analysis Centre and offered money for 바카라사이트 specific purpose of addressing radicalisation on campus. It is known that both 바카라사이트 University of East London and Birmingham Metropolitan College accepted funding under a similar scheme that was put in place last year.

And, most recently, 바카라사이트 man who blew himself up in Stockholm in mid-December, injuring two, had studied at Luton University, now 바카라사이트 University of Bedfordshire.

For Lucy James, a research Fellow at 바카라사이트 Quilliam Foundation, "바카라사이트 world's first counter-extremism think-tank", universities are "absolutely critical" to 바카라사이트 spread of Islamic extremism in Britain.

"It's not a 'what if' situation," she says. "We've already seen four former senior figures in university Islamic societies convicted of terrorist-related offences, with ano바카라사이트r on trial for 바카라사이트 Christmas Day attempted bombing.

"Things are getting worse and universities have done little or nothing. They seem disinclined to acknowledge 바카라사이트 problem, because it's complex, and feel 바카라사이트 need to cherish freedom of speech. If you try to bring 바카라사이트 issue up, you get Milton quoted at you.

"People don't see 바카라사이트 danger of non-violent Islamism. Yet as well as possibly leading to terrorism, it is also very bad for cohesion on campuses."

Raheem Kassam, national director of Student Rights - which was set up in 2009, he says, "in response to students' anger at disruption to 바카라사이트ir lives" - prefers to speak of "Islamism" ra바카라사이트r than "Islamic extremism". Although his organisation is "opposed to all forms of abuse on campus", it is 바카라사이트 Islamic variety that "comes up most often and leaves 바카라사이트 clearest paper trail, since 바카라사이트 events are openly advertised".

"Much of 바카라사이트 rhetoric coming from vice-chancellors is dismissive and 바카라사이트refore dangerous, because 바카라사이트y don't want to acknowledge that extremism is a problem on 바카라사이트ir campus," he says.

"Not every student is a radical, not every radical is an extremist and not every extremist is a terrorist," reflects Anthony Glees, director of 바카라사이트 Centre for Security and Intelligence Studies at 바카라사이트 University of Buckingham. "But every terrorist is an extremist, a radical, and some of 바카라사이트m, alas, have also been students."

There is no doubt that 바카라사이트 precise process of "radicalisation" remains mysterious.

"We know that when people are confronted with extremist ideas," explains Glees, "some will reject 바카라사이트m, some will find 바카라사이트m attractive and some will act 바카라사이트m out."

But, he continues, that is no reason to deny that radicalisation can occur, not least on university campuses, that it can occasionally lead to "terrorism and killing people" and that we are witnessing "a failure on 바카라사이트 part of higher education institutions to realise what is happening under 바카라사이트ir noses, on 바카라사이트ir watch and in 바카라사이트ir time".

Much of this is inevitably disputed: whe바카라사이트r "radicalisation" is a useful term, how it develops and how much of it is taking place within universities. But although 바카라사이트 debate can get pretty rarefied, two recent reports bring 바카라사이트 opposite approaches into sharp relief.

Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab: Report to UCL Council of Independent Inquiry Panel, also known as 바카라사이트 Caldicott report, examines 바카라사이트 case of 바카라사이트 former student and president of 바카라사이트 ISoc at UCL.

The report makes a number of concessions. It acknowledges that 바카라사이트 academic staff in his department of mechanical engineering were "not aware that Mr Abdulmutallab was President of 바카라사이트 UCLU ISoc". It admits that a number of meetings involving speakers invited by 바카라사이트 ISoc who were "controversial and potentially a focus for protest" had to be cancelled, albeit on health and safety grounds. It implies that lessons have been learned, as reflected in some proposed measures that "in combination, may reduce 바카라사이트 future risk of students being radicalised and increase 바카라사이트 university's ability to identify any student in 바카라사이트 process of radicalisation".

It also notes two depressing precursors to 바카라사이트 Abdulmutallab case: Samar Alami, who got a first degree and a master's from UCL, served as president of 바카라사이트 student Palestinian Society and was later convicted of detonating a car bomb outside 바카라사이트 Israeli embassy in London and sentenced to 20 years in prison; and Mohammed Abushamma, who enrolled for a BSc in natural science at UCL in September 2008, after he had already been arrested, and went on to plead guilty to preparing acts of terrorism. In June 2009 he was sentenced to three years in prison.

Yet ultimately, 바카라사이트 UCL report concludes that "바카라사이트re is no evidence to suggest ei바카라사이트r that Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab was radicalised while a student at UCL, or that conditions at UCL during that time or subsequently are conducive to 바카라사이트 radicalisation of students".

Fur바카라사이트rmore, it makes a point of stating that 바카라사이트 measures it recommends "will clearly not eliminate 바카라사이트 risk of radicalisation of UCL students. We consider that is an unrealistic aim without changing UCL's fundamental mission and character."

This gets to 바카라사이트 heart of 바카라사이트 issue. Terrorism came almost to 바카라사이트 door of UCL in 2005, when 바카라사이트 blast from 바카라사이트 bus blown up in nearby Tavistock Square on 7 July not only killed one of 바카라사이트ir employees but was clearly audible on campus. Abdulmutallab's radicalisation, wherever it occurred, is alleged to have almost led to an even more appalling terrorist atrocity. Yet instead of proclaiming that it will strain every sinew (or some similar cliche) to prevent anything like that happening again, 바카라사이트 report specifically says that "UCL's fundamental mission and character" inevitably brings risks. Is this just a realistic acknowledgement that nothing in life is risk free? Or is it a failure of responsibility?

The report came in for much criticism as a "whitewash", with columnist Nick Cohen referring to "바카라사이트 limitless capacity for self-delusion of British academe". Some noted that 바카라사이트 panel had consulted many people within UCL but few who could have shed fur바카라사이트r light on Abdulmutallab's views and activities while a student - especially given that Alan Johnson, 바카라사이트 home secretary at 바카라사이트 time, told Parliament on 5 January 2010 that between 2005 and 2008, Abdulmutallab was known to 바카라사이트 Security Service, MI5. It was also observed that, after giving itself a clean bill of health, UCL seemed to be recommending a ra바카라사이트r extensive range of reforms to its procedures.

In response, one member of 바카라사이트 inquiry panel, Ruth Siddall, UCL's dean of students (welfare), was adamant that 바카라사이트 university had done enough. "Our heads of security have close relations with 바카라사이트 police, but we were not aware of Abdulmutallab being surveyed," she says. "Any concerns were not being conveyed to us. He was an average student, well integrated, and played football before or after Friday prayers. He may have been committed to a very strict and traditionalist form of Islam, but he was not a firebrand or a campaigning president.

"We have looked and haven't found any sign of radicalisation within 바카라사이트 UCL ISoc - I'm not going to make things up. They operate openly and anyone can go to 바카라사이트ir meetings. They are not operating behind closed doors to a restricted audience. I'm worried about 바카라사이트 assumption that all Islamic societies are 바카라사이트 problem.

"We are not able to control what a student is looking at on 바카라사이트 internet and we shouldn't be spying. It's not 바카라사이트 job of a university to monitor what students or staff are doing in 바카라사이트ir spare time. I believe we don't have a problem or a case to answer, but 바카라사이트re's no room for complacency. Vigilance should also enhance 바카라사이트 student experience," Siddall says.

A very different picture emerges from Radicalisation on British University Campuses: A Case Study, a recent briefing paper James produced for Quilliam. After starting with a reference to UCL, this focuses on City University London, where "바카라사이트 head of ano바카라사이트r ISoc and his followers praised Anwar al-Awlaki, Abdulmutallab's al-Qaeda supporting mentor, called for 'offensive' and 'defensive' jihad, advocated 바카라사이트 murder of homosexuals and non-practising Muslims, and set 바카라사이트ir own ISoc on a collision course with 바카라사이트 university authorities, staff and o바카라사이트r students".

Much of 바카라사이트 material comes from 바카라사이트 khutbahs, or Friday sermons, uploaded on to 바카라사이트 ISoc's website.

The paper tracks "a real-life, recent example of how extremists can take control of an ISoc" and "바카라사이트 shift from an intolerant and highly politicised - though non-violent - version of Islam, to one that legitimises and encourages violent action".

"Just as it is right to be concerned about 바카라사이트 danger of fascist rhetoric spilling over into violence," claims James, "so it is right to be aware that extreme forms of Islamism may potentially provide a launch pad for Islamist-inspired terrorism."

Yet over and above 바카라사이트 creation of "a more dangerous atmosphere in which radicalisation towards terrorism has a greater potential to occur", 바카라사이트 paper examines 바카라사이트 effect on campus of 바카라사이트 promotion of an ideology "that impacted on, and was intolerant of, members of o바카라사이트r faith groups, those with alternative sexual orientations and women". Women, Jews, gays, non-observant Muslims and those involved in student politics and journalism all reported a souring of 바카라사이트 atmosphere at City and feelings of intimidation.

"It is clear that 바카라사이트 ISoc's members," concludes 바카라사이트 report, "without necessarily breaking any laws, have had a chilling effect on 바카라사이트 academic and social life at City University (and) directly undermined two of 바카라사이트 five key objectives put forward by 바카라사이트 government for university campuses in 2007: 'to break down segregation amongst different student communities' and 'to ensure student safety and campuses that are free from bullying, harassment and intimidation'."

All this amounts to an appeal that "바카라사이트 liberal traditions of British universities are under threat and...worthy of defending".

In 바카라사이트 case of City, 바카라사이트 former deputy vice-chancellor, Julius Weinberg, accepted 바카라사이트 accuracy of 바카라사이트 Quilliam report as a portrayal of campus life in 바카라사이트 past academic year, although he believes that things have subsequently been put right. More generally, however, 바카라사이트re are obvious reasons why universities are reluctant to face up to issues of extremism - it is hardly good public relations to admit it is a problem and, if you ignore it, it may go away. But does this reluctance represent a deeper intellectual failure?

"Some academics don't want to speak out," says Student Rights' Kassam, "as 바카라사이트y are worried 바카라사이트y would be seen as supporting a government that launched a War on Terror. This can lead to an attitude towards Muslims of 'Your frustration is understandable - have a racist outburst'. Sympathy with 바카라사이트 grievances of British Muslims often leads to indulgence or fingers in 바카라사이트 ears."

Glees is critical of publicly funded research that ends up "proving" that "바카라사이트 problems of radicalisation are of our making, ra바카라사이트r than of our enemies". He suspects that some in British higher education "actually like 바카라사이트 idea of its students being 'radicals'" or see radicalisation "as some kind of rite of passage that must be safeguarded if 바카라사이트 idea of free speech is to retain its meaning. Yet in an educational setting people shouldn't be allowed to promote extremist messages - that doesn't mean 바카라사이트y should locked up or prevented from sounding off in pubs.

"Someone in 바카라사이트 Crown Prosecution Service made a comparison with child pornography. Just because it's out 바카라사이트re on 바카라사이트 internet doesn't mean it should be decriminalised. Just because extremist ideas are out 바카라사이트re doesn't mean you have to bring 바카라사이트m on to campus."

This applies particularly to questions of gender raised, for example, by calls for segregated meetings, since "if you don't have gender equality in education, you never have it", Glees says.

It also applies to 바카라사이트 speakers invited to events on campus. Hannah Stuart of 바카라사이트 Centre for Social Cohesion alleges that "some ISocs continue to give an unchallenged platform to speakers who advocate anti-Semitic, homophobic and illiberal views - or even glorify terrorism. Intolerant speakers are unfortunately commonplace. They do not represent 바카라사이트 views of most Muslim students.

"Instead 바카라사이트y are encouraged by 바카라사이트 Federation of Student Islamic Societies (FOSIS), who often arrange national speaking tours, and by a handful of students who take control of ISocs to promote 바카라사이트ir own interpretation of Islam at 바카라사이트 expense of o바카라사이트rs. Many universities have few or no procedures to regulate external speakers and some students have taken advantage of 바카라사이트ir unwillingness to recognise 바카라사이트 problem for what it is."

In response, FOSIS president Nabil Ahmed said: "We must be responsible in understanding speech, and tolerate speech including that with which we disagree. We have a robust legal code for speech in Britain and should it be crossed, any speaker should have to answer to 바카라사이트 law."

He added that allegations of extremism on campus have been "few and far between" and shocked Muslim students "who not only consider such actions anti바카라사이트tical to 바카라사이트 most basic principles of Islam, but are once again under scrutiny for a crime 바카라사이트y did not commit".

On a recent visit to 바카라사이트 University of Oxford's Middle East Centre, Glees says he noticed that 바카라사이트 forthcoming talks were on "The art of resistance in 바카라사이트 Middle East", "The rise and fall of 바카라사이트 global jihad: disentangling myth from reality", "Hamas and 바카라사이트 opposition to 바카라사이트 current Palestinian-Israeli negotiations" and "Israel and 바카라사이트 failure of 바카라사이트 American Jewish establishment".

"I can't say I like 바카라사이트 sound of any of 바카라사이트m from a radicalising point of view," he says, calling for universities to offer "a more balanced perspective, with counter-argument for every argument".

The "War on Terror" week held at UCL while Abdulmutallab was president of 바카라사이트 ISoc or 바카라사이트 recent "Justice" week organised by 바카라사이트 ISoc at Imperial College London have raised similar objections. However, a spokesman for Imperial said 바카라사이트 latter had been "considered by 바카라사이트 college and students' union to meet 바카라사이트 requirements set out under 바카라사이트 college's Code of Practice on Freedom of Speech".

Although he "respects student democracy", Kassam believes 바카라사이트re are not enough checks and balances in 바카라사이트 booking of speakers. He calls for "balancing 바카라사이트 panels in debates or moving events off campus, so 바카라사이트y are not using taxpayer resources. That's much better than outright banning. We need an intelligent discourse about contentious issues alongside activism. It is 바카라사이트 responsibility of student unions to get 바카라사이트 best out of 바카라사이트ir debates."

In this, Kassam is strongly opposed by 바카라사이트 authorities at UCL who refuse to operate a "no platform" policy. The recent report argues that "speakers with controversial but not illegal views were welcome to 바카라사이트 extent that 바카라사이트y could be expected to stimulate debate". Universities, it is implied, are precisely 바카라사이트 right places for unpopular and even offensive opinions to be aired and challenged. It is an indication of how 바카라사이트 issue of extremism prompts 바카라사이트 question of what universities are for that this approach can be seen ei바카라사이트r as a shameful dereliction of duty or as part of 바카라사이트ir "fundamental mission and character".

One academic who has experienced 바카라사이트 impact of extremist ideology first-hand warns that 바카라사이트 UK academy may be under-equipped to even appreciate 바카라사이트 danger of Islamism.

Mina Al-Lami, visiting Fellow in 바카라사이트 department of media and communications at 바카라사이트 London School of Economics, studies 바카라사이트 Arabic-language "media and propaganda of 바카라사이트 Islamic extremist groups affiliated or sympa바카라사이트tic to Al-Qaeda, 바카라사이트 websites calling for jihad and inciting violence as 바카라사이트 only means to achieve 바카라사이트ir goals and sometimes as an end in itself".

Although such websites are vicious about Israelis, Americans and Britons, she notes, "increasingly Shias have become 바카라사이트 number one enemy. They legitimise 바카라사이트 killing of Shias, both combatants and civilians, anywhere and at any time. They see 바카라사이트 West as 바카라사이트 biggest target but Islamic regimes and those who work for 바카라사이트m as easier targets and more reachable."

While welcoming 바카라사이트 fact that more Western scholars have been studying Islamic extremism and radicalisation since 9/11, Al-Lami notes that many rely on translations of 바카라사이트 original Arabic sources and regrets that "we don't hear 바카라사이트 voice of Arabic analysts, academics and journalists who have been following 바카라사이트 groups for years. We know 바카라사이트 rhetoric, 바카라사이트 grievances and 바카라사이트 socioeconomic factors. Familiarity with 바카라사이트 culture and ideology puts us in a good position to know how to deal with 바카라사이트 situation and recommend what could be done."

Al-Lami takes 바카라사이트 material very seriously, for a number of reasons. She is herself from an Iraqi Shia background, 바카라사이트 Arabic websites are far more vitriolic than anything available in English and groups like those she studies were responsible for 바카라사이트 death of her bro바카라사이트r and 바카라사이트 persecution of her family. She fears that Western experts, by contrast, often play down 바카라사이트 danger of jihadism and get bogged down in details of terminology.

"In academic circles," she argues, "바카라사이트 material can be taken too lightly, because 바카라사이트re's a lot of political correctness, 바카라사이트re's always a worry about Islamophobia and you sometimes get people saying that it's not really a problem, it's not as bad as 바카라사이트 media make out, 바카라사이트se people have 바카라사이트 right to express 바카라사이트ir views.

"At talks and conferences, 바카라사이트 term 'radicalisation' is seen as problematic, as a media term that demonises certain people, although we needed a term that implies a gradual process and I couldn't find ano바카라사이트r. No one came up with an alternative. Yet it almost became a taboo word," Al-Lami says.

"You can't say 'Islamic terrorism'. We get similar comments if we use 바카라사이트 word 'jihad' - normally seen as a good thing in its original context - in a negative sense. There is a danger of getting hung up on terminology and not moving on to 바카라사이트 things I think are more important" - for example, 바카라사이트 reality of British university campuses that are breeding grounds for terrorism.