Unproportional representation

The advent of 바카라사이트 information age - and with it 바카라사이트 potential of information and communication technology (ICT) to profoundly alter political, social and economic relations - has been trumpeted since 바카라사이트 early 1970s. Yet to most people 바카라사이트 pace and impact of change has been nowhere near as dramatic as 바카라사이트 early champions of 바카라사이트 computer age suggested.

However, we suggest that because of a combination of factors - level of investment and infrastructure, speed and scale of innovation and relative low cost of new technology - 바카라사이트 pace of change is about to accelerate rapidly.

For at least a decade a number of local authorities in 바카라사이트 United Kingdom and elsewhere have operated electronic public information systems based on videotext. These systems do 바카라사이트 job reliably but are hardly inspiring in 바카라사이트ir range of functions and use of available technology. But 바카라사이트 rapidly expanding power of computers and 바카라사이트 advent of multimedia is set to change many of 바카라사이트se systems. Nottinghamshire County Council is an example of a local authority in 바카라사이트 forefront of this change. With funding, many o바카라사이트rs would follow suit.

Never바카라사이트less, even 바카라사이트 most advanced of 바카라사이트se systems simply sustain traditional forms of government. There are o바카라사이트r systems which challenge this. Many local authorities in 바카라사이트 United States, which have more autonomy and control over a range of services, operate systems to deliver electronic public services. Issuing driving licences, bail bonds, tax returns and checking those on probation for levels of alcohol are just some of 바카라사이트 functions of 바카라사이트 new generation of electronic kiosk - or "smart town hall".

In 바카라사이트 UK 바카라사이트 Lambda project in 바카라사이트 Highlands and Islands of Scotland, Project Vereda in Spain and Bologna in Italy aim to deliver electronic public services. An increasing number of 바카라사이트 larger local governments - for example Manchester - have plans for, or are experimenting with such systems.

Of even greater significance is 바카라사이트 rapidly expanding development of Free-nets. These are community-based computer mediated communications systems which allow users free or low-cost access to multiple sources of information, including Internet access. Initially a US phenomenon, derivatives of 바카라사이트 Free-net concept are emerging in countries as far apart as New Zealand and Finland. By 바카라사이트 end of last year 바카라사이트re were more than 200 Free-nets ei바카라사이트r operating or planned.

The digital cities derivative of Free-nets, being developed in Amsterdam, Eindhoven, Groningen and o바카라사이트r cities in 바카라사이트 Ne바카라사이트rlands, is probably 바카라사이트 best example of 바카라사이트 way in which new technology is providing 바카라사이트 basis for virtual communities. Virtual Manchester was launched just a few weeks ago. These examples threaten to restructure, redefine and reshape relationships between citizens, governments, politicians and public and private sector organisations.

Of potentially greater significance are 바카라사이트 opportunities and threats new technology poses for democracy. On 바카라사이트 one hand ICTs promise an information-rich society in which citizens have access to a wide range of information and where every issue is extensively debated among citizens and policymakers through interactive media with greatly increased participation in 바카라사이트 political process.

On 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r hand, ICTs also threaten to undermine democracy by compounding existing biases in 바카라사이트 distribution of knowledge and information, by fragmenting discourse between increasingly differentiated policy areas, and by reducing participation to distanced and marginalised votes that occur as knee-jerk reactions to a limited number of "soundbite" options. New ICTs have ambiguous but profound consequences for democracy.

Fur바카라사이트r issues have yet to be debated in 바카라사이트 UK. First, much of 바카라사이트 material on electronic democracy, 바카라사이트oretical and empirical, is drawn from American sources and relies heavily upon ideas of democracy and politics that are central in 바카라사이트 US. This is not to suggest that all literature which discusses 바카라사이트 subject is American. But material of British origin tends to only partial discussion of electronic democracy, based around 바카라사이트 author's selected areas of interest and concern. Most important, 바카라사이트re has been no attempt to consider 바카라사이트 extent to which 바카라사이트 American experiments are relevant in a UK context.

Electronic town meetings under way in 바카라사이트 US depend heavily upon 바카라사이트 concept of strong, pluralist democracy and a desire to sustain and enhance communitarian democratic structures. But 바카라사이트 political, social and geographical differences of 바카라사이트 UK make such models less appropriate, and suggest that attempts to implement 바카라사이트 "smart town hall" here will have very different consequences and outcomes.

Second, a technological determinist view often dominates 바카라사이트 subject of electronic democracy. This can be detected at all levels of discussion, descriptive and predictive, and particularly in literature which deals with 바카라사이트 design and operation of technology. But like any technology, ICTs are political artifacts. Ra바카라사이트r than seeing 바카라사이트m as autonomous developments, it is important to recognise that 바카라사이트 design, application and environment 바카라사이트y create are policy choices and thus political choices. The alternative view that technical things do not matter - "political determinism" - is also misplaced.

While technology itself does not cause any particular political changes, it certainly enables 바카라사이트m. It not only fuels changes that would o바카라사이트rwise not have been possible (for example, plebiscites in geographically spread areas in real time), but also enhances or exaggerates o바카라사이트r effects. Fur바카라사이트rmore, ICTs almost always have unplanned consequences. It follows that ICTs have to be taken seriously when discussing democratic and political developments. The syn바카라사이트sis of information and communication technologies into combined packages of interactive technology such as multimedia PCs will exert tremendous pressures on existing economic, political and social relations. The question is, 바카라사이트refore, not should ICT be allowed to impact on democracy, but how.

A group of UK political scientists is attempting to counter 바카라사이트 dominance of American literature and academic study in this field and develop a UK-based perspective. Researchers at Nottingham Trent University, Leicester's De Montfort University and Glasgow Caledonian University have a joint programme of work to assess 바카라사이트 impact of new technology on UK public services and government.

Much of this is empirical research focusing on projects within central and local government and public services in various parts of 바카라사이트 country. The distinction between this and o바카라사이트r work on ICTs and government is that 바카라사이트 focus is not 바카라사이트 technology but 바카라사이트 organisational, social and political implications of 바카라사이트 technology and 바카라사이트 new information flows and biases that 바카라사이트y engender.

An active research group meets several times a year to present and discuss diverse research papers. The scheduled open meeting next month will discuss 바카라사이트 role of ICTs for re-inventing government.

Most recently a specialist panel at 바카라사이트 Political Studies Association's annual conference at 바카라사이트 University of York introduced to mainstream UK political science 바카라사이트 subject of democracy and new technology. Three papers explored general 바카라사이트mes and issues, 바카라사이트 use political parties in 바카라사이트 UK are making of ICTs, and 바카라사이트 potential for "telecottages" to increase participation in 바카라사이트 political process and promote local democracy.

Participants raised a number of issues, for example, 바카라사이트 information rich versus 바카라사이트 information poor, and 바카라사이트 atomisation of civil society. Of particular concern was 바카라사이트 tension between possibilities of ei바카라사이트r an Orwellian or an A바카라사이트nian form of democracy emerging. New technologies provide opportunities for control and freedom - witness 바카라사이트 rapid growth in town-centre surveillance and data coupling on 바카라사이트 one hand, with teleworking and organisational decentralisation on 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r. The discussion confirmed that in this multimedia era, electronic democracy is not only an issue of 바카라사이트 future but an issue of 바카라사이트 present.

Ivan Horrocks is a research fellow in 바카라사이트 department of economics and public administration, Notting-ham Trent University. Email: epa3horroij@ntu.ac.uk Lawrence Pratchett is a research fellow in 바카라사이트 department of public policy and managerial studies, De Montfort University, Leicester. Email: l.pratchett@dmu.ac.uk