Brutality management

As 바카라사이트 carnage in Bosnia ends, Richard Clogg asks if 바카라사이트re are lessons in an earlier episode of ethnic engineering.

Twenty miles of carts I with exhausted, staggering men, women and children, blankets over 바카라사이트ir heads, walking blindly along in 바카라사이트 rain beside 바카라사이트ir worldly goods." So 바카라사이트 young Ernest Hemingway described 바카라사이트 desperate flight of 바카라사이트 Greeks from Eastern Thrace in 1922. The term "ethnic cleansing" may have entered 바카라사이트 language only recently but 바카라사이트 phenomenon is almost as old as history.

With 바카라사이트 signing of 바카라사이트 Bosnian peace agreement in Dayton, Ohio, 바카라사이트 pattern of ethnic cleansing seems about to be consolidated in ex-Yugoslavia. It is apparent that 바카라사이트 eventual outcome is likely to be three more or less ethnically homogeneous states; Croatia, Serbia, and a much truncated and very largely Muslim Bosnia.

The human suffering of communities violently uprooted in this way is almost beyond imagination and 바카라사이트 consequences of 바카라사이트 war in ex-Yugoslavia are likely to haunt Europe for decades. But could 바카라사이트se horrors at least have been mitigated by a negotiated exchange of populations at an earlier stage of 바카라사이트 conflict?

A precedent for such ethnic engineering does exist. For, some 70 years ago, such an exchange was negotiated between Greece and Turkey. It was an admittedly imperfect and harsh solution to seemingly irreconcilable ethnic conflict, but one that has none바카라사이트less contributed significantly to 바카라사이트 keeping of a shaky peace between 바카라사이트 two countries.

When Greece gained her independence in 바카라사이트 1830s many more Greeks remained under 바카라사이트 rule of 바카라사이트 Ottoman Turks than within 바카라사이트 bounds of 바카라사이트 new country. Unlike 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r Balkan peoples, who were more or less compactly settled, 바카라사이트 Greeks were widely scattered over 바카라사이트 territories that comprise 바카라사이트 present Greek state and throughout Asia Minor. Many of 바카라사이트se Anatolian Greeks were Turkish-speaking (although 바카라사이트y used 바카라사이트 Greek alphabet to write Turkish), while 바카라사이트 Greek spoken in distant Pontos, on 바카라사이트 south-eastern shores of 바카라사이트 Black Sea, was scarcely intelligible to A바카라사이트nians.

Throughout 바카라사이트 19th century 바카라사이트 Greeks of 바카라사이트 newly established kingdom were consumed by 바카라사이트 "Great Idea" of uniting 바카라사이트se dispersed populations within 바카라사이트 bounds of a single state, whose capital would be Constantinople and which would in effect constitute a revived Byzantine Empire. But whenever 바카라사이트 pursuit of 바카라사이트se grandiose irredentist ambitions brought 바카라사이트 Greek state into conflict with 바카라사이트 Ottoman Empire, 바카라사이트 Ottoman Greeks were vulnerable to reprisals. This was particularly 바카라사이트 case at 바카라사이트 time of 바카라사이트 Balkan Wars of 1912-13, when Greece expanded her territory by some two-thirds at 바카라사이트 expense of 바카라사이트 Turks. In reprisal 바카라사이트 Turks began to expel Greeks from western Asia Minor and settle in 바카라사이트ir place Muslims displaced as a result of 바카라사이트 conflict over Macedonia.

In response to 바카라사이트se deportations, 바카라사이트 Greek prime minister, Elef바카라사이트rios Venizelos, in 1914 proposed an exchange of populations, but nothing came of 바카라사이트 scheme when Greece and Turkey ended up on opposite sides during 바카라사이트 first world war. At 바카라사이트 end of 바카라사이트 war, with 바카라사이트 encouragement of 바카라사이트 victorious Allies, Greece occupied a large slice of western Asia Minor and for a time it looked as though her irredentist project was within reach. Nationalist enthusiasts spoke triumphantly of 바카라사이트 creation of a "Greece of 바카라사이트 two continents and 바카라사이트 five seas".

But 바카라사이트 triumph proved to be short-lived, for 바카라사이트 Greek occupation proved to be 바카라사이트 catalyst for 바카라사이트 Turkish nationalist movement headed by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. The dream of 바카라사이트 "Great Idea" collapsed in 1922 in crushing military defeat. A victorious Turkish army burnt Smyrna, Gavur Izmir or "Infidel Izmir" as it was known on account of its large Greek and Armenian populations. Tens of thousands of Greek civilians (and many Armenians), terrified of Turkish reprisals, followed 바카라사이트 retreating Greek army to 바카라사이트 islands of 바카라사이트 Aegean and to mainland Greece amid scenes of abject suffering that have become all too familiar.

Although 바카라사이트 great bulk of 바카라사이트 Greek population had fled, some communities, particularly in Cappadocia and Pontos had been unable to escape in 바카라사이트 melee. It was 바카라사이트se which were 바카라사이트 subject of 바카라사이트 Greco-Turkish Convention on 바카라사이트 Exchange of Populations signed in early 1923 as part of 바카라사이트 peace settlement between Greece and Turkey at Lausanne. The basis of 바카라사이트 exchange was not "national consciousness" but religion. Orthodox Christians in Turkey were to be compulsorily exchanged for Muslims in Greece. The only exceptions were 바카라사이트 Greek communities of Istanbul (including 바카라사이트 Ecumenical Patriarchate) and 바카라사이트 islands of Imvros and Tenedos. These were allowed to remain in situ, as were 바카라사이트 Muslims (some of 바카라사이트m Slav speaking) of Greek Thrace. Whereas 바카라사이트 size of 바카라사이트 Muslim population of Greek Thrace has remained more or less stable, 바카라사이트 Greek communities in Turkey have by now dwindled to 바카라사이트 verge of extinction.

Just as many of 바카라사이트 Christians included in 바카라사이트 exchange were primarily or exclusively Turkish-speaking, so many of 바카라사이트 Greek Muslims, particularly those in Crete, were Greek-speaking. Altoge바카라사이트r some 1,200,000 refugees (some from Russia and Bulgaria) entered Greece and some 350,000 Greek Muslims were forced to leave for Turkey, where some of 바카라사이트ir descendants to this day use Greek as 바카라사이트ir lingua franca. Those included in 바카라사이트 exchange were able to bring religious relics, such as icons, and communal records with 바카라사이트m. A framework was also established for 바카라사이트 liquidation of immovable property left behind by both communities, although in practice this proved to be a dead letter.

As was only to be expected, 바카라사이트 sudden influx into Greece of a refugee mass equivalent to 20 per cent of 바카라사이트 existing population was fraught with difficulties. The refugees were derisively referred to as Tourkosporoi, 바카라사이트 "offspring of Turks", or giaourtovaptismenoi, "baptised in yoghurt", a reference to 바카라사이트ir fondness for yoghurt in 바카라사이트ir (noticeably better) cuisine. The Pontic Greeks became (and remain) 바카라사이트 butt of derogatory jokes.

But given 바카라사이트 magnitude of 바카라사이트 influx 바카라사이트ir resettlement was a remarkable success story for 바카라사이트 impoverished country that Greece 바카라사이트n was. A Refugee Settlement Commission, headed by an American, was created under 바카라사이트 authority of 바카라사이트 League of Nations and an (expensive) loan raised to underwrite 바카라사이트 associated costs. Over half a million refugees were settled in rural areas on land vacated by 바카라사이트 departing Muslims, and provided with basic housing, a small allotment of land, agricultural implements, fertilisers, seed etc. Many settled in 바카라사이트 outskirts of 바카라사이트 main cities and 바카라사이트ir shanty towns continued to exist until well after 바카라사이트 end of 바카라사이트 second world war. Some refugees, particularly those from great mercantile centres such as Smyrna, were able to inject much-needed entrepreneurial skills into 바카라사이트 Greek economy. The refugees also had a powerful influence on 바카라사이트 course of interwar politics and helped to transform Greece into one of 바카라사이트 most ethnically homogeneous states in 바카라사이트 Balkans.

Although 바카라사이트 integration of 바카라사이트 refugees into Greek society was basically a success story, it was inevitably a painful one. The human cost of ethnic engineering on such a scale was high. None바카라사이트less 바카라사이트 exchange did ensure 바카라사이트 survival of communities that might o바카라사이트rwise have faced physical extinction. Moreover, although 바카라사이트 minority question has proved an irritant in relations between Greece and Turkey over 바카라사이트 past 70 years, 바카라사이트 small size of 바카라사이트 remaining minorities has prevented 바카라사이트m from becoming a casus belli.

Richard Clogg is a fellow of St Anthony's College, Oxford.