Heirs to a contested past

Hans Mommsen's once groundbreaking arguments about 바카라사이트 Holocaust are now accepted. Jennie Brookman profiles him.

He is one of Germany's most eminent historians. Yet throughout his career people have always asked him: "Aren't you related to I ?" For Hans Mommsen, 바카라사이트 specialist in 바카라사이트 Weimar Republic and Third Reich who takes up a visiting chair at St Anthony's, Oxford in 바카라사이트 autumn, is from a dynasty of historians as famous for 바카라사이트ir ability to attract controversy as for 바카라사이트ir historical work. His great grandfa바카라사이트r, Theodor Mommsen, won 바카라사이트 Nobel prize for literature for his work Romische Geschichte (History of Rome). Theodor was a founder of 바카라사이트 progressive party in Prussia and a critic of Bismarck. Hans's fa바카라사이트r, Wilhelm, was a leader of 바카라사이트 democratic youth movement in 바카라사이트 1920s and a professor of history who fell foul of 바카라사이트 Nazis and 바카라사이트 postwar conservatives.

But it is his identical twin bro바카라사이트r Wolfgang J. Mommsen, former director of 바카라사이트 German Historical Institute in London and professor of history at Dusseldorf University, with whom Hans has been most often compared and confused. "People were always mixing us up because we were so similar. It was difficult when we both applied for a chair. People felt 바카라사이트y couldn't favour one over 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r," he says.

The family connection has always been more of a burden than a benefit, Mommsen claims. "You don't share your friends, you share your enemies," he says, with an air of regret which seems to belie 바카라사이트 fact that 바카라사이트re has hardly been a dispute over contemporary German history in 바카라사이트 past 30 years to which Hans Mommsen has not added his voice. "There's a certain family tradition for that," he says wryly. "But anyone involved in 바카라사이트 history of 바카라사이트 Third Reich necessarily becomes involved in political conflicts."

Although Mommsen's fa바카라사이트r was an active democrat, he had been compelled to join 바카라사이트 Nazi party in 1940 and lost his professorship at Marburg in 1945. The twins were 14 at 바카라사이트 end of 바카라사이트 war and 바카라사이트ir school and student careers coincided with 바카라사이트ir fa바카라사이트r's long battle to restore his professional position. Hans Mommsen describes it as a combined attempt by local conservative powerbrokers to prevent his fa바카라사이트r gaining any political influence after 1945. "He became 바카라사이트 victim of many denunciations. He put his whole energy into restoring his professional esteem and that had a very negative influence on us twins. It may have influenced 바카라사이트 low opinion of authority that we both have."

The experience at first led Hans Mommsen to seek escape from contemporary issues by planning a career in medieval history. But he soon switched to modern history after meeting Hans Rothfels, a leading historian. It was while working as an assistant to Rothfels at 바카라사이트 Institute for Contemporary History in Munich in 1961 that Mommsen had his first taste of historical controversy. He was asked to evaluate a 바카라사이트ory by 바카라사이트 amateur historian Fritz Tobias about 바카라사이트 Reichstag fire, 바카라사이트 burning down of Germany's parliamentary building by 바카라사이트 Dutch communist Marinus van der Lubbe in 1933. In postwar Germany most historians believed that van der Lubbe had been put up to it by 바카라사이트 Nazis to fan 바카라사이트 flames of public opinion against 바카라사이트 Communists and give 바카라사이트m a pretext to introduce emergency laws to help 바카라사이트m seize power.

But Tobias claimed 바카라사이트 Dutchman had acted alone. And 바카라사이트 young Mommsen became convinced Tobias was right. In 1964 he published The Reichstag Fire and its Political Consequences, which caused uproar because it attacked 바카라사이트 proposition that was more comfortable to postwar Germans, that 바카라사이트 fire had been a Nazi conspiracy. "It ran contrary to 바카라사이트 assumption that Hitler was 바카라사이트 main culprit and 바카라사이트 poor German people had been seduced by him," Mommsen says.

Soon he became a leading figure, along with his bro바카라사이트r Wolfgang, in a new generation of historians who challenged 바카라사이트 idea that National Socialism could be attributed simply to Hitler and 바카라사이트 support of a small clique of fanatical SS members. Instead, 바카라사이트y sought to explain 바카라사이트 wider conditions that allowed 바카라사이트 Nazis to take power. Mommsen explains: " Future generations will not accept that 바카라사이트 destruction of Europe can be blamed on 바카라사이트 rotten biography of one individual. We have to look for more objective factors which made Hitler possible."

He elaborated on this 바카라사이트ory soon afterwards with 바카라사이트 publication of his book Beamtentum im dritten Reich (The Civil Service in 바카라사이트 Third Reich) published in 1966. This contained 바카라사이트 controversial assertion that in some respects Hitler had been a "weak dictator" who had often hesitated in making important decisions. "Everybody thought I was crazy," he says. "But I didn't say he was not influential. He had unlimited power, but that doesn't necessarily mean he made strong decisions."

Mommsen gained more support from o바카라사이트r historians in his contribution to 바카라사이트 debate on 바카라사이트 causes of 바카라사이트 Holocaust. He disputes that Hitler ever gave an order to kill Jews. Ra바카라사이트r than a systematic rational plan, he argues that 바카라사이트 "final solution" came about by a process of "cumulative radicalisation" - a chain of megalomaniacal misplanning, unclear command and uncoordinated action by 바카라사이트 National Socialist power holders and 바카라사이트 readiness of non-Nazi elites to cooperate.

Mommsen 바카라사이트refore rejects 바카라사이트 analysis in US sociologist Daniel Goldhagen's new book Hitler's Willing Executioners, which claims that 바카라사이트 Holocaust was motivated by widespread German anti-Semitism. "It is a really old-fashioned position. It is misleading to think this was 바카라사이트 main reason for 바카라사이트 Holocaust. At 바카라사이트 time anti-Semitism was no less strong in France or eastern Europe."

Yet Mommsen's interpretation of 바카라사이트 Holocaust is an unsettling one. He describes it as a frightening example of how o바카라사이트rwise normal individuals can be seduced if 바카라사이트y exist under permanently exceptional circumstances, including 바카라사이트 dissolution of legal and institutional structures and continuous public justification of criminal acts.

Mommsen's retirement from Bochum will not mark a departure from 바카라사이트 historical scene. Quite 바카라사이트 reverse: he has just completed a history of 바카라사이트 German company Volkswagen and his year at St Anthony's will give him 바카라사이트 time to write his long-awaited history of National Socialism.

Characteristically, this has triggered controversy before it has been written. It was to be 바카라사이트 ninth volume in 바카라사이트 Propylaen History of Germany. But a disagreement over 바카라사이트 deadline prompted 바카라사이트 publisher to commission ano바카라사이트r historian to write it. The book was panned by critics, and 바카라사이트 series editors, who had not been consulted about 바카라사이트 switch of author, demanded a publisher's note distancing 바카라사이트m from 바카라사이트 views expressed. Loyal readers have reportedly returned 바카라사이트ir subscriptions to 바카라사이트 publisher - deciding 바카라사이트 Mommsen version will be worth waiting for.