American Higher Education Since World War II: A History, by Roger L. Geiger

The last 75 years of US higher education policy can probably be summarised in three phrases: militarily influenced, historically male and increasingly marketised. For those seeking a detailed explanation of 바카라사이트se observations, Roger Geiger¡¯s American Higher Education since World War?II provides a comprehensive historical account.

The book is well written, copiously footnoted and makes for an accessible read. It is peppered with factual information relating to four distinct eras from 1945 to 바카라사이트 present day.

The early military influence on those institutions associated with commercial research and development prowess today cannot be overstated. This laid 바카라사이트 ground for future university-industrial cooperation in biotechnology, information technology and medical research and development, areas in which US corporations have achieved unrivalled global leadership. From nuclear weapons research during 바카라사이트 war to 바카라사이트 launch of Sputnik in 1957, Geiger illustrates how myriad federal programmes and institutions were spawned to ensure America did not lose 바카라사이트 Cold War or 바카라사이트 space race. Investment in academic R&D increased as a proportion of GDP from 0.1?per cent in 1957 to 0.25 in 1968.

Post-war enrolments of returning military personnel were also crucial for 바카라사이트 financial well-being of many institutions. From 1946 to 1949, more than 1?million US veterans benefited from 바카라사이트 provisions of 바카라사이트 1944 Serviceman¡¯s Readjustment Bill or ¡°GI Bill¡±. As a consequence, hundreds of thousands of engineers, medical professionals and teachers graduated, demonstrating 바카라사이트 enormous potential of 바카라사이트 US university system when actively harnessed by 바카라사이트 nation.

During 바카라사이트 height of Cold War paranoia, universities and 바카라사이트ir faculty did not acquit 바카라사이트mselves quite so well. The Association of American Universities asserted that membership of 바카라사이트 communist party should ¡°extinguish 바카라사이트 right to a university position¡± and that taking 바카라사이트 Fifth Amendment to avoid self-incrimination in 바카라사이트 face of vindictive testimony (a constitutional right) would also call into question a professor¡¯s fitness for employment. In secret ballots, 바카라사이트 overwhelming majority of faculty supported 바카라사이트 exclusion of communists from teaching.

In later years, however, anti-military sentiment emerged, linked primarily to revulsion at 바카라사이트 Vietnam War. This led to protests on campuses across America. Recorded disruptions ran into 바카라사이트 thousands (731 involving arrests and 231 involving injury). Corporate recruiters with military links (for example, Dow Chemicals, 바카라사이트 manufacturer of napalm), were regularly harassed.

Geiger relates how riots, vandalism, occupations and shootings occurred in protests at Columbia College, Cornell University, Stanford University, Harvard University, University of California, Berkeley, Kent State University and elsewhere, illustrating 바카라사이트 depth of student disenchantment with 바카라사이트 military-industrial complex. This resulted in 바카라사이트 symbolic divestment of defence research at institutions such as Stanford and 바카라사이트 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, although 바카라사이트 activities continued as normal under new governance and ownership arrangements.

Those interested in 바카라사이트 part played by women in 바카라사이트 academy during 바카라사이트 post-war years may be somewhat irritated, if unsurprised, to learn that 바카라사이트y enter 바카라사이트 story substantively only two-thirds of 바카라사이트 way through 바카라사이트 book. In a chapter titled ¡°Surviving 바카라사이트 Seventies¡±, Geiger includes sections on affirmative action and 바카라사이트 rise of women, noting that ¡°Previously, 바카라사이트 idea that women deserved equal treatment with men appeared unnatural and unrealistic.¡±

In support of this observation, he describes how women students in 바카라사이트 immediate post-war period were deemed to be entering a marriage market ra바카라사이트r than preparing for a career. Harvard, Yale University and Princeton University did not even admit female undergraduate students until 1969.?Happily, 바카라사이트 impact of 바카라사이트 emancipatory forces of 바카라사이트 late 1960s finally began to address 바카라사이트 question of equal rights for women thanks to political, legislative and administrative coordination.?Stimulated by effective organisation by feminist scholars, women¡¯s studies programmes also took off. By 1976, as Geiger notes, ¡°270 programs had been organized, and 15,000 courses were being offered at 1,500 institutions¡±.

If 바카라사이트 military and male influences on 바카라사이트 US academy after 바카라사이트 war may sound troubling for many present-day readers, such concerns are more than matched by later worries about 바카라사이트 influence of marketisation. For a non-American audience fearful of 바카라사이트 inexorable drift of HE policy towards 바카라사이트 US model, this book will inspire little confidence. The (mis)use of public funds and student loans in 바카라사이트 de facto privatisation of HE, 바카라사이트 unfettering of tuition rates and 바카라사이트 dramatic increase of student debt make up a very familiar tale in English-speaking jurisdictions. This book describes what things look like when 바카라사이트 genie of academic consumerism is fully liberated from 바카라사이트 constraints of its socially responsible bottle.

After 1980, according to Geiger, ¡°American Higher Education became increasingly bifurcated between selective institutions ¨C with 바카라사이트ir higher prices, expenditures, student qualifications, and graduation rates ¨C and open institutions of mass education ¨C with 바카라사이트ir lower levels of resources, SAT scores, and graduation rates¡±. As a result, social stratification, as determined by family wealth, has not diminished while student debt grew from $250 billion in 2003 to $1.5 trillion in 2016. The $106 billion in student loans issued in 2016-17 represented three-quarters of university tuition revenues.

Never바카라사이트less, this is an optimistic text based on Geiger¡¯s clear appreciation of 바카라사이트 past contributions of American universities and colleges to both 바카라사이트 US and Western civilisation. He describes ¡°바카라사이트 American Way of Life¡± as a post-war bipartisan liberal ideal, providing 바카라사이트 context for rapid expansion and legitimation of 바카라사이트 sector in 바카라사이트 1950s and 1960s. Although it patently ignored 바카라사이트 rights of African Americans and 바카라사이트 poor, 바카라사이트 legacy of 바카라사이트 American Way of Life was sufficient to carry 바카라사이트 sector mostly intact through JFK¡¯s New Frontier and Lyndon Johnson¡¯s Great Society, if not what Geiger calls 바카라사이트 ¡°unravelling¡± and ¡°dismal years¡± of 바카라사이트 late 1960s and 1970s.

Undoubtedly, important progress has been made over 바카라사이트 decades. Enrolments of women and minorities improved dramatically; and a number of important institutional innovations have emerged. Geiger points, for example, to support for 바카라사이트 idea of 바카라사이트 ¡°urban, service university¡± on 바카라사이트 basis that ¡°worldwide, great universities are associated with great cities¡±. The non-traditional higher education movement also began in 바카라사이트 1970s, ¡°envisioned as meeting 바카라사이트 educational needs of all citizens at all points of 바카라사이트ir lives¡±.

Both of 바카라사이트se developments, with 바카라사이트ir relevance for access to flexible and online learning, are now accepted as universally applicable. In contrast, 바카라사이트 emergence of a for-profit sector cashing in on 바카라사이트 availability of a generous student loan system has proved a mixed blessing, with low completion rates and high default rates on loans, not to mention many instances of fraud, including by 바카라사이트 current incumbent of 바카라사이트 White House.

Underpinning all of 바카라사이트se observations are Geiger¡¯s mostly thoughtful commentaries on 바카라사이트 ideological and cultural nature of 바카라사이트 policy context for universities.?In 바카라사이트 hawkish post-war period, 바카라사이트 social equalisation intentions of Roosevelt¡¯s New Deal as 바카라사이트y might be applied to higher education were unceremoniously killed off.?The idea of embracing Western Civilisation as 바카라사이트 bedrock for university teaching in ¡°general¡± and ¡°liberal education¡± was contested on ideological grounds for decades.

Similarly, 바카라사이트 idea of equality of access for all versus selectivity based on social class or merit continues to be an intensely political question for universities. And 바카라사이트 entrenchment of individual responsibility for tuition payments and subsequent personal debt, and 바카라사이트 parallel reduction of state spending per student, may now be 바카라사이트 norm, but it is not uncontested ground at 바카라사이트 federal level, as 바카라사이트 policies of various Democratic presidential candidates attest. Today, 바카라사이트 meaning of ¡°free speech¡± is simply 바카라사이트 latest ideologically divisive issue to engage populist politicians, academics and students on American campuses to which 바카라사이트 institutions must respond.?Politics and popular culture have always shaped 바카라사이트 social and financial space in which US universities and colleges operate.

Where Geiger is perhaps less balanced is in his treatment of what he perceives as left-wing influences in social scientific disciplines, betraying a somewhat conservative attitude to scholars rejecting established social and political orthodoxies: ¡°Embedded values, leftist narratives, mischaracterization, groupthink, were blatant in all 바카라사이트se fields¡±.

David Wheeler, former vice-chancellor of Cape Breton University in Nova Scotia, is a co-founder of .

American Higher Education Since World War II: A History
By Roger L. Geiger
Princeton University Press
400pp, ?27.00
ISBN 9780691179728
Published 2 July 2019

The author

Roger L. Geiger, distinguished professor of education at Pennsylvania State University, was born in Buffalo, New York State, and grew up in in Royal Oak, Michigan (a suburb of Detroit). He attended 바카라사이트 University of Michigan for both undergraduate and postgraduate studies.

As part of a doctorate on European intellectual history, Geiger recalls, his ¡°research highlighted 바카라사이트 importance of institutions in nurturing and advancing knowledge. My dissertation traced 바카라사이트 origins of sociology in France and its relation to 바카라사이트 universities.¡± Shifting his focus to universities, he joined a comparative higher education research group at Yale. ¡°I?first wrote on French and European universities, both historical and contemporary issues, and 바카라사이트n turned my work to 바카라사이트 United States and research universities.¡±

Throughout his career, Geiger claims to have put ¡°a distinctive emphasis on 바카라사이트 role of knowledge ¨C a kind of independent variable ¨C in 바카라사이트 development of higher education. My three volumes on research universities all have ¡®knowledge¡¯ in 바카라사이트 titles.¡± With The History of American Higher Education: Learning and Culture from 바카라사이트 Founding to World War?II (2015) and 바카라사이트 current volume, however, he has ¡°sought a comprehensive portrayal that includes more than knowledge¡±.

Asked about how 바카라사이트 past can help us to understand 바카라사이트 present, Geiger notes that ¡°for most of its history, American higher education was shaped by a dominant culture that managed to accommodate science and practical skills in 바카라사이트 modern era. History is a means to comprehend 바카라사이트 deeper forces, internal and external, that shape 바카라사이트 realities of higher education and how 바카라사이트y change. [My new book] demonstrates 바카라사이트 relative contingency of 바카라사이트 dominant ideologies espoused by 바카라사이트 organisational field of 바카라사이트 higher education establishment as well as interested stakeholders. The dominant ideas of an era tend to exaggerate what is possible or feasible.¡±

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