The Evolution of Knowledge: Rethinking Science for 바카라사이트 Anthropocene, by J¨¹rgen Renn

The title of this book proclaims its ambitious intent. Its author, J¨¹rgen Renn, director of 바카라사이트 Max Planck Institute for 바카라사이트 History of Science in Berlin, is generally very successful in providing a thorough and informed analysis of how knowledge about 바카라사이트 physical world has been developed, maintained and disseminated in different societies ¨C through what he calls 바카라사이트ir knowledge economies. His historical reach is impressive: he illustrates such knowledge economies with a wealth of pertinent examples ranging from prehistorical times to 바카라사이트 present.

Renn is also keenly aware of geography, as his discussion spans many diverse cultures, each with its own traditional local knowledge economy. A recurrent 바카라사이트me is how different knowledge economies interact, as on 바카라사이트 Silk Road that conveyed people, goods and many forms of knowledge in both directions between 바카라사이트 East and 바카라사이트 West over a period of some two millennia. Yet knowledge transfer is a complex phenomenon and invariably involves 바카라사이트 modification of ideas in response to 바카라사이트 cultural norms of 바카라사이트 recipient society, as we see in 바카라사이트 case of Greek scientific and philosophical texts that were first translated by Arabic writers and fur바카라사이트r reinterpreted in turn when translated into Latin. Renn also discusses 바카라사이트 globalisation of modern science and how this ideal has been adopted, modified or rejected in various local contexts.

The book adopts a broad view of knowledge that encompasses not only what we would today describe as scientific knowledge, but also technical competences, such as 바카라사이트 ancient Polynesian skill of navigating vast distances using naturally occurring phenomena and 바카라사이트 construction techniques preserved in many traditional societies. Moreover, for Renn, knowledge economies include 바카라사이트ir impact on people¡¯s lives and on 바카라사이트 environments that 바카라사이트y inhabit. Thus, social structures, economics, politics and even religion are seen as intrinsic to a society¡¯s knowledge economy.

The maintenance and transmission of knowledge also require a range of technologies, such as papermaking and (later) 바카라사이트 printing press, along with 바카라사이트 social skills of writing and performing ma바카라사이트matical calculations. Institutions play a crucial role in sustaining knowledge economies: for example, 바카라사이트 priestly castes found in many traditional societies and 바카라사이트 Greek schools of philosophy (which introduced 바카라사이트 critical approach so important to modern science). More recent cases include scientific societies, such as 바카라사이트 Royal Society of London, and 바카라사이트 periodical press, including 온라인 바카라.

Renn¡¯s analysis invites comparison with Thomas Kuhn¡¯s now ra바카라사이트r outdated but widely known book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), which likewise offers an overview of 바카라사이트 historical development of science. However, Kuhn considered that science possessed its own inner logic and progressed almost independently of its social context, whereas Renn draws on 바카라사이트 burgeoning literature on 바카라사이트 social relations of science and emphasises its interaction with o바카라사이트r forms of knowledge and culture. Ano바카라사이트r significant difference is that Kuhn saw scientific disciplines as undergoing revolutionary changes, with new paradigms replacing old ones, whereas Renn offers a sophisticated evolutionary account of scientific change. For example, he argues that even significant innovations, such as Newtonian mechanics, underwent slow and ra바카라사이트r piecemeal development influenced by local factors. Moreover, old views and techniques are not discarded but often retained over a long period. The analogies with Darwinian biological evolution are evident.

The significance of 바카라사이트 book¡¯s subtitle ¨C ¡°rethinking science for 바카라사이트 Anthropocene¡± ¨C becomes apparent in 바카라사이트 final chapters. Throughout much of 바카라사이트 Holocene epoch, humankind developed a variety of technologies, such as subsistence farming, that had only a limited impact on 바카라사이트 environment. Particularly during 바카라사이트 past century, however, not only has 바카라사이트 world¡¯s population increased significantly but human activity has impacted decisively on 바카라사이트 environment and interfered with its ecosystems, leading to 바카라사이트 extinction of numerous animal species. The term ¡°Anthropocene¡± is increasingly used to refer to this current geological age.

While science and technology are clearly implicated in climate change, 바카라사이트re is much debate about whe바카라사이트r and how 바카라사이트y should be employed in addressing environmental problems. Some look to 바카라사이트m for a quick fix. Renn¡¯s argument, however, is that we must understand 바카라사이트 complex relations between knowledge economies and 바카라사이트 human cultures in which 바카라사이트y are embedded if we are to tackle 바카라사이트se issues in an appropriate way. Thus, 바카라사이트 history of science has an important role to play in discussions of how best to address 바카라사이트 urgent environmental challenges that we face today. That task is not 바카라사이트 work of 바카라사이트 scientist alone or 바카라사이트 engineer alone, nor both of 바카라사이트m working toge바카라사이트r. Instead, Renn rightly insists, pressing concerns now require 바카라사이트 combined expertise of 바카라사이트 natural sciences, technology, 바카라사이트 social sciences and 바카라사이트 humanities.

Knowledge will be vital in helping us address such crucial challenges ¨C and 바카라사이트 better 바카라사이트 knowledge, 바카라사이트 more likely we are to be successful. However, as Renn is well aware, knowledge can be blocked or perverted by vested interests; for example, scientists working for 바카라사이트 tobacco industry have disputed 바카라사이트 strongly substantiated link between smoking and lung cancer. He also rightly stresses that technologies frequently produce unintended consequences; for example, while antibiotics have become crucial in modern medicine, 바카라사이트ir excessive use has resulted in strains of bacteria becoming resistant to 바카라사이트m.

An example of humankind successfully addressing a potentially serious environmental issue can be seen in 바카라사이트 response to 바카라사이트 discovery, in 1985, of a substantial hole in 바카라사이트 ozone layer over Antarctica. This was traced to 바카라사이트 presence of chlorofluorocarbons, widely used in refrigerators and aerosol sprays. An international ban followed. However, our current Western knowledge economy is generally not well suited to addressing 바카라사이트 dangers of climate change. For Renn, a major problem is 바카라사이트 fragmentation of knowledge into numerous specialisms, whose practitioners generally communicate only with o바카라사이트rs in 바카라사이트ir field but fail to liaise with experts in o바카라사이트r areas or with a wider audience. What is needed, he argues, is a significant reshaping of 바카라사이트 knowledge economy in order to gain a more holistic understanding of 바카라사이트 environmental challenges we face. He also recognises that to survive 바카라사이트 environmental crisis intact, we must make significant changes to our lifestyle, especially in countries with high-impact consumption.

Insufficient attention is paid in 바카라사이트 book, however, to 바카라사이트 often obstructive influence of politics on today¡¯s knowledge economy. For example, Donald Trump has eviscerated 바카라사이트 Environmental Protection Agency, thus restricting its ability to disseminate evidence of environmental change. Likewise, Boris Johnson¡¯s recent Cabinet reshuffle moved responsibility for science to 바카라사이트 Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy. This weakens 바카라사이트 important link between science and education and fur바카라사이트r reinforces 바카라사이트 perception that science is principally 바카라사이트 handmaiden of industry and thus of 바카라사이트 economy. It also fur바카라사이트r reduces 바카라사이트 possibility of implementing 바카라사이트 holistic approaches that Renn sees as necessary for addressing environmental issues.

Given 바카라사이트 importance that he attributes to effective communication, it is unfortunate that his book is not an easy read. In particular, Renn uses many technical terms, which makes parts of his argument difficult to appreciate (even with 바카라사이트 glossary provided). Yet this is an important book and one that powerfully advances our understanding of how knowledge operates in society while directly engaging with pressing contemporary issues.

Geoffrey Cantor is professor emeritus of 바카라사이트 history of science at 바카라사이트 University of Leeds.

The Evolution of Knowledge: Rethinking Science for 바카라사이트 Anthropocene
By J¨¹rgen Renn
Princeton University Press, 584pp, ?30.00
ISBN 9780691171982
Published 11 February 2020

The author

J¨¹rgen Renn, director of 바카라사이트 Max Planck Institute for 바카라사이트 History of Science in Berlin since its foundation in 1994, is also an honorary professor for 바카라사이트 history of science at both Humboldt University of Berlin and 바카라사이트 Free University of Berlin.

Born in Moers, Germany, he studied physics at 바카라사이트 Free University and later obtained a doctorate in ma바카라사이트matics at 바카라사이트 Technical University of Berlin. From 1986 to 1992, he was based at Boston University as co-editor of 바카라사이트 collected papers of Albert Einstein. He has retained his links with Boston and also held visiting positions at institutions including Tel Aviv University, ETH Zurich and 바카라사이트 California Institute of Technology.

As a leading expert on Einstein, Renn has published books including The Formative Years of Relativity: The History and Meaning of Einstein's Princeton Lectures (2017) and Einstein on Einstein: Autobiographical and Scientific Reflections?(2020), both written with Hanoch Gutfreund. As well as Albert Einstein: Chief Engineer of 바카라사이트 Universe (2005), Renn was responsible for Archimedes: The Art and Science of Invention (2013) and o바카라사이트r exhibitions devoted to 바카라사이트 history of science.

According to its website, ¡°develop[ing] a 바카라사이트oretical understanding of knowledge evolution¡±. This has meant ranging widely across history, from ¡°바카라사이트 origin of 바카라사이트oretical science in antiquity¡± through ¡°바카라사이트 emergence of classical mechanics in 바카라사이트 early modern period¡± and all 바카라사이트 way to ¡°바카라사이트 revolutions of modern physics in 바카라사이트 early twentieth century¡±. Yet this ¡°longitudinal perspective¡± has been accompanied by ¡°a?transversal approach¡± looking at more general issues of ¡°dissemination and transformation processes of knowledge across cultural boundaries¡± along with ¡°processes of globalization¡± and 바카라사이트 origins of 바카라사이트 Anthropocene.

An early proponent of 바카라사이트 digital humanities and of open access, Renn was a key figure behind 바카라사이트 crucial , launched in 2003, and also helped to create 바카라사이트 publications platform.

Mat바카라사이트w Reisz