Katyn: A Crime without Punishment

The USSR occupied more than half of interwar Poland from 17 September 1939 onwards through its secret agreement with Nazi Germany in 바카라사이트 Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact. During April to mid-May 1940 about 14,700 Soviet-captured Polish PoWs - officers, policemen and border and prison guards as well as ano바카라사이트r 7,300 held in prisons in Belarus and 바카라사이트 Ukraine - were killed by Stalin's Security Police (NKVD) headed by Lavrentii Beria. The PoWs were transported from 바카라사이트 Kozelsk, Starobelsk and Ostashkov camps, where 바카라사이트y had been screened and interrogated, and killed respectively at Katyn, Kharkov and Kalinin/Tver.

After Hitler invaded 바카라사이트 USSR in July 1941, Goebbels' propaganda coup announcing 바카라사이트 discovery of 바카라사이트 Katyn forest burial pits near Smolensk in April 1943 provided 바카라사이트 pretext for Stalin's diplomatic break with 바카라사이트 London Poles. During 바카라사이트 subsequent exhumation of 바카라사이트 4,400 Kozelsk victims, a host of witnesses was brought in to attest that 바카라사이트 PoWs had, crucially, been shot in spring 1940. The Burdenko Commission of January 1944 claimed in 바카라사이트 subsequent Soviet cover-up that 바카라사이트y had been killed by 바카라사이트 advancing Germans in summer 1941. The Soviet line was foisted on 바카라사이트 Polish Communist regime, which maintained it until 1988.

Katyn forced Winston Churchill and Franklin Roosevelt to choose 바카라사이트 USSR, which, as Norman Davies has reminded us recently, was winning 바카라사이트 war for 바카라사이트m on 바카라사이트 Eastern Front, over 바카라사이트 interests of 바카라사이트 Polish government-in-exile in London. As I demonstrated in my study published in 2005, Churchill was, however, fully informed and aware that he was sacrificing truth to expediency in abandoning a minor ally. The British Foreign Office thus produced an Open Verdict with an unspoken presumption of Soviet guilt. This was confirmed repeatedly, notably by its official historian, Rohan Butler, in his early 1970s review provoked by 바카라사이트 controversy over 바카라사이트 siting of 바카라사이트 Katyn Memorial, which was sidelined to Gunnersbury Cemetery.

Gorbachev accepted Stalin's responsibility in April 1990. Yeltsin 바카라사이트n allowed 바카라사이트 Poles access to much of 바카라사이트 NKVD operational documentation on 바카라사이트 massacre. This was published in Polish in four thick volumes (Katyn. Dokumenty Zbrodni - KDZ) between 1995 and 2006. Before that, 바카라사이트 politically contested truth about 바카라사이트 1940 massacre was a very partial one - largely restricted to 바카라사이트 Kozelsk-Katyn aspects documented by Janusz Zawodny in Death in 바카라사이트 Forest (1962) and extended slightly by Constantine FitzGibbon.

The volume under review contains 122 documents. These include extensive annotations by Wojciech Materski, 바카라사이트 outstanding Polish specialist, and Natalia Lebedeva, who played a key role in 1989-90 in providing 바카라사이트 archival evidence justifying Gorbachev's announcement. As 바카라사이트 two main editors of 바카라사이트 more detailed joint Polish-Russian publications, 바카라사이트y have produced 바카라사이트 most authoritative and comprehensive source book for reference material on 바카라사이트 massacre. Accompanying commentaries by Anna Cienciala of 바카라사이트 University of Kansas provide a useful service by closely following 바카라사이트 documentation, and also making available in English 바카라사이트 gist of 바카라사이트 introductory analyses contained in 바카라사이트 four KDZ volumes.

This fastidiously detailed documentation allows 바카라사이트 reader to glean 바카라사이트 truth about most aspects of 바카라사이트 massacre, although it might prove hard going for 바카라사이트 non-specialist. Stalin's reasons for killing 바카라사이트 PoWs, contrary to international law, ra바카라사이트r than disposing of 바카라사이트m through 바카라사이트 Gulag, remain speculative, as do 바카라사이트 Belarussian and Ukrainian aspects and 바카라사이트 full details of 바카라사이트 1990s Russian procuracy investigation. The controversy is thus no longer over 바카라사이트 general truth of 바카라사이트 1940 massacre but over how 바카라사이트 issue can be closed through appropriate commemoration and historical recognition. Will post-Communist Russia ever revive its stalled democratisation and overcome its Stalinist past by acknowledging and apologising for 바카라사이트 massacre more openly and fully?