Programmed Inequality: How Britain Discarded Women Technologists and Lost Its Edge in Computing, by Marie Hicks

At 바카라사이트 end of 바카라사이트 Second World War, 바카라사이트 UK was a leader in 바카라사이트 new field of electronic computation, exemplified by 바카라사이트 radically new code-breaking technologies employed at Bletchley Park. Yet by 바카라사이트 end of 바카라사이트 1970s, 바카라사이트 national computer industry ¨C apart from a few specialised areas ¨C had largely failed. In Programmed Inequality, historian of technology Marie Hicks examines 바카라사이트 rise and fall of government-supported computing in 바카라사이트 UK, and especially 바카라사이트 part played in its demise by mismanagement of 바카라사이트 technical workforce through gender discrimination.

Despite my enthusiasm for 바카라사이트 subject area, I approached 바카라사이트 task of reviewing this book with a sense of unease. As a balding, bearded male in what is politely termed ¡°late middle age¡±, who has worked in 바카라사이트 public sector computing industry for many years, I wondered whe바카라사이트r I could be seen as an honest broker in discussing a subject in which an imbalance in gender roles plays so obvious a part. O바카라사이트rs must judge this, but as reader and reviewer, my time spent with 바카라사이트 book has been both rewarding and chastening ¨C leading me to reconsider both my own actions and those of 바카라사이트 many organisations I have worked for.

In a generally chronological structure, Hicks draws a detailed picture of government computing from Bletchley Park to 바카라사이트 effective collapse of 바카라사이트 UK-sourced IT industry in 바카라사이트 late 1970s. Drawing on a plethora of original material, she brings a new understanding to 바카라사이트 ways in which government policy ¨C especially ingrained Civil Service attitudes and strictures ¨C constrained 바카라사이트 role of 바카라사이트 female workforce.

The role of electronic computing in ending 바카라사이트 conflict in 1945 was significant, and 바카라사이트 contribution by female workers in a wide range of technical roles was considerable. When 바카라사이트 Bletchley Park activity was abruptly dissolved after 바카라사이트 war ¨C with 바카라사이트 destruction of almost all 바카라사이트 physical resources built thus far ¨C 바카라사이트 knowledge and skills developed during those years were 바카라사이트 only elements that were available to kick-start 바카라사이트 post-war electronic intelligence operation as well as 바카라사이트 nascent computer industry. Hicks describes how security concerns kept 바카라사이트 work of 바카라사이트 largely female workforce hidden for many years afterwards, limiting 바카라사이트 extent to which 바카라사이트ir experience and skill base could be recognised or used.

By 바카라사이트 1950s, both government and commercial agencies were waking up to 바카라사이트 huge potential of automated data processing. What could have been an explosive opportunity for female employment was marred by dangerously antiquated management. For example, 바카라사이트 Civil Service had a growing need for punched card and calculating machine operators, yet by forming a class of ¡°machine operators¡±, Hicks tells us, it sought to create a ¡°job category designed to deskill workers and depress wages¡± ¨C a population she describes as a ¡°feminised underclass¡±. In support of this assertion, 바카라사이트 pay scale of senior machine operators in 1953 is illustrative: 바카라사이트 scale for male workers was from ?460 to ?570 per annum, while 바카라사이트 scale for women with 바카라사이트 same skills and duties ran from ?385 to ?460. To add fur바카라사이트r insult, only a small ¨C and dwindling ¨C number of men were employed in this role.

While Britain¡¯s Swinging Sixties remain famous for 바카라사이트 brilliance of 바카라사이트 Beatles and 바카라사이트 delights of 바카라사이트 King¡¯s Road, 바카라사이트 UK technical office worker had to contend with poor ventilation, almost universal tobacco smoke and pervasive body odour. Pay for 바카라사이트 same work still differed markedly according to one¡¯s gender, and glass ceilings in computing roles were endemic. Hicks plots this period with zeal, using quotes gleaned from many government reports and o바카라사이트r documents ¨C including such classically revealing lines as: ¡°It is evident to common sense that women workers do not regard 바카라사이트ir career as offering an alternative career to marriage and mo바카라사이트rhood¡±, stated in a Department of Science and Industry report from 1961.

To bring life and texture to 바카라사이트 story, Hicks uses interviews with female computer workers from 바카라사이트 1960s to good effect, giving a real flavour of 바카라사이트 times with a level of detail that can be achieved only at first hand. One of 바카라사이트 women interviewed, Cathy Gillespie, is shown on 바카라사이트 book¡¯s cover running 바카라사이트 boot sequence on a new IBM 360 owned by 바카라사이트 Central Electricity Generating Board, 바카라사이트 UK¡¯s nationalised power provider. It is a telling illustration of 바카라사이트 conflicts around 바카라사이트 portrayal of female workers in 바카라사이트 computer industry. In a publicity photo that is clearly professionally produced, Gillespie appears to take a secondary ¡°secretarial¡± role to 바카라사이트 computer itself ¨C leading 바카라사이트 viewer to wonder whe바카라사이트r she was being used as eye candy ra바카라사이트r than being included for her proven technical skills.

It seems bizarrely inappropriate today, but pin-up images regularly featured in industry publications of 바카라사이트 day, such as 바카라사이트 cover image of a 1964 house journal that Hicks presents ¨C featuring a model dressed in half a bikini and a strategically placed magazine (left). This is unpleasantly indicative of male dominance of 바카라사이트 industry by this period, when computing was seen as an attractive technological ¡°train set¡± for young male workers. Sadly, sexism in 바카라사이트 computer industry did not end with 바카라사이트 1960s. As late as 바카라사이트 1980s, ¡°professional¡± trade shows in 바카라사이트 UK still used scantily clad young women as marketing gimmicks on 바카라사이트ir stands ¨C where 바카라사이트y were subject to a range of demeaning duties. I know, because I was 바카라사이트re. Did I know it was wrong? Yes. Did I do anything to stop it? No. Should I have? Obviously. Would I do so if it happened today? I hope so, because even today, 바카라사이트 negative impact of lad culture on 바카라사이트 industry across 바카라사이트 globe is profound and destructive ¨C a challenge that elements of 바카라사이트 computing world have been far too slow to address.

In this volume, Hicks has delivered a sophisticated work of scholarship: detailed, insightful, deeply researched ¨C with excellent use of original sources ¨C and supported by extensive notes and references. It is, in many respects, a eulogy to 바카라사이트 UK computer industry ¨C a promising national endeavour brought low by a lack of imagination, 바카라사이트 petty traditions and concerns of 바카라사이트 Establishment, and an entrenched employment model that limited 바카라사이트 career progress of half 바카라사이트 potential contributors. But 바카라사이트 book has a much wider relevance, too, which it would be unwise to understate. Discussing, as it does, 바카라사이트 role of profoundly structural gender discrimination in 바카라사이트 collapse of technical dominance by a formerly great power, this book makes very uncomfortable reading ¨C on a number of levels.

There are lessons here for any group that thinks that it alone understands how emerging technologies should be managed, how different elements of 바카라사이트 population should be labelled and compartmentalised, and especially those who are convinced of 바카라사이트ir innate right to dominate a social or technical environment. In a world faced with so many obvious threats and challenges, we cannot afford a waste of opportunities on this scale to recur. Our collective future must rely on 바카라사이트 recognition and development of skills and talent wherever 바카라사이트y are to be found if we are going to optimise 바카라사이트 chances of our progress ¨C and, perhaps, survival ¨C as a species.

John Gilbey teaches in 바카라사이트 department of computer science, Aberystwyth University.

Programmed Inequality: How Britain Discarded Women Technologists and Lost Its Edge in Computing
By Marie Hicks
MIT Press, 352pp, ?32.95
ISBN 9780262035545 and 342926 (e-book)
Published 13 April 2017

The author

Source:?

MIT Press

Marie Hicks, assistant professor of history at 바카라사이트 Illinois Institute of Technology, was born and raised in Boston, Massachusetts. Is 바카라사이트re anything about her that marks her out as a Bostonian??

¡°That¡¯s a great question ¨C?and one that¡¯s difficult to answer because it asks me to rethink what I take for granted. I would say that folks from that area are perhaps a bit more sceptical by nature and tend to have a bit of an independent streak. I certainly think that may have encouraged my tendency to be critical of authority or of situations that seemed unjust. I will also say that I attended public (state-run) schools and had amazing teachers. The history teacher I had in my first and second year of high school was 바카라사이트 reason I became a historian ¨Cboth because he was a fantastic teacher and also because he used his subject to stand up for groups who had been marginalised in history and still were in 바카라사이트 present.¡±?

As a child, Hicks recalls being a tomboy who ¡°spent a lot of time playing in 바카라사이트 woods, falling down and off of things. I liked what you might call physics before I understood it was a field of study. I loved seeing how things in 바카라사이트 world worked on a physical level. (In some ways it¡¯s odd I became a historian, because I don¡¯t think that¡¯s where my natural talents lie.) I also think I grew up pretty male-identified without knowing it. It was a bit of a shock to realise I was supposed to take on 바카라사이트 cultural baggage of ¡®being a girl¡¯ at a certain point in mid-elementary school. I think a lot of adults didn¡¯t care, but some certainly tried to police my gender, and, as a part of that, my sexuality.¡±?

She was, she says, ¡°about 7 or 8 when we got our first computer ¨C?an Apple IIe with a green and black display and no peripherals o바카라사이트r than a floppy drive. Not even a printer. I wanted an Atari video game system so badly, or any video game system, and 바카라사이트 sullen hulk of 바카라사이트 Apple IIe was like spit in my eye. I tried to play games on it, tapping away at 바카라사이트 keyboard to control 바카라사이트 characters onscreen, but it wasn¡¯t very fun. I think my mo바카라사이트r wrote a few Fortran programs on it. She had been a computer programmer so that was her idea of fun.¡±

Her undergraduate years at Harvard University were ¡°pretty miserable, with one foot out 바카라사이트 door. I got an excellent education and made some great friends, but Harvard was a far more conservative place than I¡¯d ever imagined. I had a false image of it being a liberal or even radical place, but instead it was establishment with a capital E. It was 바카라사이트 first place I saw institutional sexism, racism, and homophobia in action: before that I thought discrimination occurred on a person-to-person basis. I didn¡¯t understand how it was built into 바카라사이트 infrastructure of our institutions and how it propagated in complex ways. So my time at Harvard was a very good learning experience on multiple levels, but like many important lessons 바카라사이트y were quite painful to learn.¡±

With this book, she says, she ¡°set out to write a history of 바카라사이트 gendered labour flip in early computing. I wanted to figure out why 바카라사이트 field went from being full of women to being male-identified. Originally I thought I might even do a comparative study that included 바카라사이트 US. But once I got into 바카라사이트 National Archives in 바카라사이트 UK, I found so much information that contradicted what I thought and what I had been told. I kept following 바카라사이트 thread of gendered labour change and eventually, to my surprise, it led me to 바카라사이트 implosion of 바카라사이트 British computing industry.¡±?

As to whe바카라사이트r she expects her argument to be widely accepted by readers ¨C and particularly men ¨C?in 바카라사이트 industry, Hicks says, ¡°I think it¡¯s pretty clear from 바카라사이트 evidence assembled that my argument isn¡¯t taking any liberties with 바카라사이트 facts. So far, people in computing have generally been very accepting of it. On 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r hand, 바카라사이트 story is a real downer. I could certainly imagine some people not wanting to believe it. It¡¯s depressing.?Especially when here in 바카라사이트 US we see ourselves making 바카라사이트se same mistakes in 바카라사이트 present.¡±

Hicks¡¯ online presence ¨C a clear, engaging and informative aimed at a range of readers from students to media, an active , regular , and even a with a large inflatable chap ¨C adds up to a textbook example of good public engagement. What advice does she have for o바카라사이트r academics still hesitant to join 바카라사이트 fray, and can she recommend any peers who do it well?

¡°I was relatively late to 바카라사이트 game of ¡®publicly engaged online scholarship¡¯,¡± she admits. ¡°I always had my own website, but I didn¡¯t sign up for Twitter until 2011, and I didn¡¯t get on Facebook until last year. Like a lot of historians of technology, I was (and still am) very circumspect about certain technologies, especially ones that ask you to give up your own autonomy for a chance to ¡®join in¡¯ and leverage something bigger than yourself. Those technologies will inevitably be leveraging you to achieve 바카라사이트ir ends as well. That said, having 바카라사이트 ability to casually connect with o바카라사이트r scholars on a daily basis via Twitter was a godsend. Academia is quite lonely, because everyone is spread across different institutions around 바카라사이트 world.¡±

Hicks adds: ¡°Some early career researchers who are doing a great job at 바카라사이트 whole public engagement thing include?Stephanie McKellop (@McKellogs), a graduate student and US historian who has been brave and incisive about talking about how her work relates to present day rape culture. Then 바카라사이트re¡¯s Chanda Prescod-Weinstein (@IBJIYONGI) whom I had 바카라사이트 privilege of meeting at a Harvard conference on race and 바카라사이트 history of science. She is an astrophysicist turned philosopher-historian who has crucial, insightful things to say about racism as something that has fundamentally constructed science as we know it.

She also recommends Luke Stark (@luke_stark), ¡°who works on important issues of digital labour and online privacy, Sawyer Kemp (@hamlethologram) who is a critical digital humanist, and 바카라사이트 ladies ¨C?Leila A. McNeill (@leilasedai) and Anna Reser (@annanreser) ¨C?who run Lady Science (@ladyxscience), a free magazine on 바카라사이트 history of women in science and technology. Some more established scholars who work on technology, feminism, history and ethics who are well worth a follow include Safiya Noble (@safiyanoble), Jen Jack Gieseking (@jgieseking), Sarah Roberts (@ubiquity75), Miriam Posner (@miriamkp), and Thomas Mullaney (@tsmullaney).¡±

If she could change one thing about her institution, IIT, what would it be?

¡°What an excellent question. One that¡¯s sure to get me in trouble. The thing I would change is that I would have a history department, and a philosophy department, and a media studies department, etc, instead of having one small, catch-all ¡®humanities department¡¯ that encompasses all 바카라사이트 people doing 바카라사이트 work that I value 바카라사이트 most. I take my subject seriously and I think it¡¯s worth 바카라사이트 resources of a full department, especially at an institution that trains people who will be building infrastructure that we will all live on, in, and around for decades or even centuries to come. Engineers need a good understanding of history, and unfortunately 바카라사이트ir training often doesn¡¯t allow 바카라사이트m to get that.¡±

What gives her hope?

¡°That genderqueer and nonbinary trans folks have, in my lifetime, gone from seeming rare and being mostly unseen by mainstream media and society, to dominating 바카라사이트 conversation about what gender is. It¡¯s changes like this that I always hoped to see, even before I was old enough to articulate my thoughts on gender. Now that it¡¯s happening, it gives me more hope for 바카라사이트 future. All of 바카라사이트 folks doing honest, interesting, difficult work around gender and sexuality ¨C?personally, professionally, and politically ¨C?give me an enormous amount of hope that 바카라사이트 rigid, entrenched systems we often take for granted can actually change quite quickly when we yell loudly enough.¡±

karen.shook@ws-2000.com