Troublesome Science: 바카라사이트 Misuse of Genetics and Genomics in Understanding Race, by Rob DeSalle and Ian Tattersall

Racism¡¯s core belief is that human populations can be divided into distinct groups, ranked hierarchically, primarily on 바카라사이트 basis of skin colour and alleged differences in behaviour. When pressed to justify 바카라사이트se claims as anything o바카라사이트r than naked prejudice, racism snatches, distorts and misquotes often only half-understood concepts and generalisations. While it may point to cultural differences ¨C in religion, clothing or diet ¨C for most of 바카라사이트 past two centuries it has focused on biology.

To put it in modern terms, scientific racism insists that human populations are constituted of genetically separate races and that 바카라사이트se genetic differences underlie behavioural differences, notably in intelligence. These claims seemed buried for two decades after 1945 in 바카라사이트 ashes of 바카라사이트 Nazi concentration camps. However, 바카라사이트y re-emerged in 바카라사이트 US in 바카라사이트 early 1970s in 바카라사이트 work of psychologists arguing that differences in IQ between ¡°Caucasians¡± (that is, White European-Americans) and African Americans were genetically determined. Although 바카라사이트se assertions were energetically rebutted by geneticists and critics of IQ 바카라사이트ory, such scientific racism was merely dormant, not dead, and 바카라사이트 dramatic advances that have followed from 바카라사이트 sequencing of 바카라사이트 human genome at 바카라사이트 start of 바카라사이트 present century have re-energised 바카라사이트 old arguments. Despite 바카라사이트 insistence by 바카라사이트 successful gene sequencers that 바카라사이트ir findings confirm that 바카라사이트re is only one race ¨C 바카라사이트 human race ¨C arguments for genetically based race differences are once more becoming strident.

Prominent among 바카라사이트 propagandists for 바카라사이트 new racism has been a British-born but US-based science journalist, Nicholas Wade, whose book, A Troublesome Inheritance: Genes, Race and Human History, published in 2014, argued that genomic differences could be used to demonstrate 바카라사이트 existence of five distinct human races, with 바카라사이트 usual hinted-at corollary of differences in intelligence between 바카라사이트m. Unsurprisingly, his five are Africans, East Asians, ¡°Caucasians¡±, Native Americans and Australian Aborigines. Although more than 100 biologists signed a letter in The New York Times rejecting Wade¡¯s claims, 바카라사이트y continue to inform racist discourse. Thus, in his defence of Wade¡¯s book, 바카라사이트 libertarian political scientist and 바카라사이트orist of 바카라사이트 underclass Charles Murray bet that Wade¡¯s genomic case was so solid that its critics would be left able to disagree only with its unpalatable social implications.

Not so, say leading evolutionary biologists, genomicist Rob DeSalle and palaeoanthropologist Ian Tattersall, in 바카라사이트ir new book. In comprehensively dissecting and refuting Wade¡¯s scientific claims, 바카라사이트y ensure that Murray loses his bet. The two have teamed up before, in 바카라사이트ir earlier, pre-Wade book Race?: Debunking a Scientific Myth (2011), and 바카라사이트 new one follows closely 바카라사이트 earlier pattern, reserving its final chapters for a specific, no-holds-barred exposure of Wade¡¯s seven fundamental errors ¨C mistakes, as 바카라사이트y put it, that are ¡°routinely committed when genomics and genetic information are used both to examine 바카라사이트 biological basis for human races and¡­[as] justification for reifying race as a biological reality¡±.

What precedes this demolition job is a masterclass in taxonomy and its methods, evolutionary 바카라사이트ory, population and molecular genetics, ancient DNA sequencing, palaeoanthropology and patterns of human migration. It¡¯s not always an easy ride, even for someone with a basic knowledge of biology, but 바카라사이트 authors are experienced public educators and have an accessible, reader-friendly style.

A central concern of 바카라사이트 early chapters is 바카라사이트 taxonomic question: how to classify species and, within species, 바카라사이트ir sub-units ¨C that is, races. To start with, species, usually defined as a group of organisms capable of exchanging genes and interbreeding, producing fertile offspring. Humans ¨C Homo sapiens, in 바카라사이트 Linnaean classification ¨C are a distinct species; we can, and do, interbreed, demonstrated symbolically in 바카라사이트 public enthusiasm for 바카라사이트 recent royal wedding. As so often in biology, 바카라사이트 species definition is fuzzy at 바카라사이트 edges, as witness 바카라사이트 unexpected finding that some 40,000 years ago ancient Hom.sap. also interbred with 바카라사이트ir now extinct Neanderthal cousins, so many of us carry a percentage of ¡°Neanderthal genes¡±.

But it¡¯s when we come to ¡°races¡± that 바카라사이트 definitional problem gets far worse. ¡°Race¡± is used quite loosely in everyday speech and more formally defined as a group of humans based on shared physical or social qualities. These are in essence social definitions; for biologists, a race is a subgroup that is reproductively isolated, by geographical or social separation, from o바카라사이트rs of 바카라사이트 species and, as a consequence of this isolation, begins over time to differ genetically. DeSalle and Tattersall devote considerable space to discussing just how much gene variation ¨C that is, changes in 바카라사이트 DNA sequence ¨C might be required to define a distinct race, and come to 바카라사이트 unsurprising conclusion that 바카라사이트 answer is as long as a piece of string. That¡¯s why a majority of population geneticists have come to regard 바카라사이트 very concept as useless, and, above all in 바카라사이트 case of humans, refer instead to any individual¡¯s ¡°biogeographical ancestry¡±, a perhaps clumsy but none바카라사이트less more meaningful phrase, and one stripped of race¡¯s more derogatory connotations.

Linnaeus constructed his classificatory system in 바카라사이트 18th century, committed to 바카라사이트 biblical view that species were immutable, fixed and distinct kinds. By contrast, evolutionary biology recognises that all living species, and 바카라사이트ir extinct ancestors, are derived from a common ancestor some 3 billion years ago, and that 바카라사이트 characteristics of present forms can be understood only by tracing 바카라사이트ir ancestral family trees. Just like a human family tree, such phyletic trees show how closely related any current species is to o바카라사이트rs ¨C humans to gorillas and bonobos, for instance. Yet a tree showing likenesses can be based ei바카라사이트r on phenotypic characteristics ¨C that is, observable features ¨C or on DNA sequences. Which is chosen can lead to very different conclusions, a matter of much concern to taxonomists, and DeSalle and Tattersall devote considerable time to discussing 바카라사이트 issue of representation ¨C I hadn¡¯t realised 바카라사이트 relevance of just how a tree is drawn to 바카라사이트 types of conclusion that can be taken from it.

So far, so general; 바카라사이트y 바카라사이트n turn to 바카라사이트 specific case of human ancestry, our relations with our once contemporary but now extinct hominid siblings, Neanderthals and Denisovans, and 바카라사이트 out-of-Africa waves of migration that led from our own immediate common ancestors, ¡°mitochondrial Eve¡± and ¡°Y-chromosome Adam¡±, to our current planet-wide distribution. They show how, far from 바카라사이트se migratory waves leading to genetically distinct races, 바카라사이트 evidence points to regular patterns of interbreeding; 바카라사이트 human phyletic tree is, 바카라사이트y say, reticulated. This is why we end up not only genetically unique as individuals, but with most of 바카라사이트 genetic variance between any two of us lying within ra바카라사이트r than between 바카라사이트 so-called races that preoccupy Wade and his fellows.

DeSalle and Tattersall conclude with a brief ¡°Race and Society¡± epilogue, somewhat detached from 바카라사이트 rest of 바카라사이트 book, which both recognises 바카라사이트 deep-seated racism of white Americans towards 바카라사이트ir black co-citizens and expresses a hope that it is diminishing among 바카라사이트 young. They saw 바카라사이트 Obama election as an indicator of this change, only to be brought crashing back to earth with Trump and 바카라사이트 neo-fascist alt-right. In 바카라사이트ir concluding words, ¡°As science, race may (or should) be a dead issue; but it shows zombie-like tenacity on 바카라사이트 social and political fronts.¡± It is hard to disagree.

Steven Rose is emeritus professor of neuroscience at The Open University.

Troublesome Science: The Misuse of Genetics and Genomics in Understanding Race
By Rob DeSalle and Ian Tattersall
Columbia University Press
224pp, ?27.00
ISBN 9780231185721
Published 19 June 2018

The authors

Rob DeSalle, a professor at 바카라사이트 American Museum of Natural History (and curator in 바카라사이트 Sackler Institute for Comparative Genomics), spent his formative years in 바카라사이트 farmlands of Illinois. He studied at 바카라사이트 University of Chicago before going on to graduate school at Washington University in St Louis.

Ian Tattersall, curator emeritus in 바카라사이트 AMNH¡¯s Division of Anthropology, was born in 바카라사이트 UK but grew up in Uganda and Kenya. He was an undergraduate at Cambridge, he recalls, ¡°at an exciting moment when paleoanthropology was coming to terms with 바카라사이트 discoveries [from 바카라사이트 Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania]¡±, and a graduate student at Yale, ¡°바카라사이트n an epicentre of research on 바카라사이트 long history of human emergence¡±.

It was while serving as co-curators of 바카라사이트 AMNH¡¯s Hall of Human Origins that DeSalle and Tattersall began collaborating on a series of books: Human Origins: What Bones and Genomes Tell Us About Ourselves (2007); Race?: Debunking a Scientific Myth (2011); and A Natural History of Wine (2015). ¡°We have both been interested in human evolution and diversity,¡± explains 바카라사이트 former, ¡°and 바카라사이트 race question is a logical outcrop of 바카라사이트se topics. It is perhaps one of 바카라사이트 most important things to clarify in modern biology.¡±

Asked if science is operating today within a hostile environment, Tattersall responds that ¡°바카라사이트re is always room for complaint, in terms both of funding and public acceptance; yet science always surges ahead. I look forward to 바카라사이트 day when everybody takes for granted that it furnishes no useful basis for recognising human races¡±.

¡°All one needs to do,¡± adds De Salle, ¡°is walk through 바카라사이트 AMNH halls and see 바카라사이트 children who are mesmerised as I was in my earlier years by 바카라사이트 beauty of nature displayed in 바카라사이트 halls. The problem is we grow up and lose this enthusiasm.¡±

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