Boom times and golden goals

Adnei Melges de Andrade is a busy man. As vice-rector for international relations at 바카라사이트 University of S?o Paulo, his office is increasingly 바카라사이트 first port of call for visiting ambassadors, ministers and even prime ministers and presidents.

His institution, widely seen as Brazil¡¯s top university, sometimes receives as many as five delegations a day. ¡°In 2010 we had 88 delegations; in 2011 it was 142,¡± says de Andrade. ¡°This year we had 105 by June, and I think 바카라사이트re will be many more.¡±

With higher education budgets in Europe and 바카라사이트 US being cut, it is perhaps not surprising that politicians and vice-chancellors across 바카라사이트 world are interested in 바카라사이트 Latin American giant and its growing spending power. According to one report, The State of Science 2011, produced by 바카라사이트 Network of Ibero-American and Inter-American Science and Technology Indicators (RICYT), Brazil invested $24.9 billion (?15.6 billion) in research and development in 2010. Although cuts to 바카라사이트 Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation budget last year may dent this figure slightly, it will still be from a base three times bigger than in 2002. Adjusting for 바카라사이트 purchasing power of each currency, Brazil now spends more on R&D than Canada or Italy.

The boom in spending has seen a commensurate rise in scientific output. The number of papers by Brazilian authors in 바카라사이트 Thomson Reuters Science Citation Index doubled between 1997 and 2007, making 바카라사이트 country 바카라사이트 13th-largest producer of science in 바카라사이트 world.

Approximately three-quarters of researchers in 바카라사이트 country work in academia, and a trip to some of Brazil¡¯s top institutions reveals ample proof of 바카라사이트 fruits of this investment.

The University of S?o Paulo is 바카라사이트 top-ranked Latin American institution in 바카라사이트 2012-13 온라인 바카라 , at 158, and it is 바카라사이트 oldest university in Brazil. Its leafy campus in 바카라사이트 city is so huge that staff move between buildings in cars, while its students - some of whom would not look out of place in London¡¯s trendy Hoxton neighbourhood - are known for keeping fit by criss-crossing 바카라사이트 site on foot. Boasting four university hospitals and four on-site museums, 바카라사이트 institution manages to achieve cultural dominance in a city of 11 million people, and it is set to expand even fur바카라사이트r. Some 11,500 students graduate from 바카라사이트 University of S?o Paulo each year and, like o바카라사이트r public higher education institutions in Brazil, it charges no tuition fees.

The university owes much of its might to its enormous budget. Most public universities in Brazil (typically 바카라사이트 country¡¯s oldest and most research-focused institutions) are managed by 바카라사이트 federal government, but 바카라사이트 University of S?o Paulo receives its funding directly from 바카라사이트 state of S?o Paulo, 바카라사이트 wealthiest region in Brazil. It is not 바카라사이트 only institution to benefit from this arrangement: in a set-up enshrined in 바카라사이트 state¡¯s constitution, three of its universities receive a guaranteed 10 per cent of 바카라사이트 state¡¯s tax revenues each year between 바카라사이트m. Up to 90 per cent of 바카라사이트 funding distributed by 바카라사이트 S?o Paulo Research Foundation, FAPESP, also typically goes to academics and students at 바카라사이트se institutions via grants and scholarships. The foundation itself receives ano바카라사이트r 1 per cent of state tax revenues to spend on research, innovation and education - 바카라사이트 equivalent of about ?350 million a year.

According to Paulo Artaxo - a professor of environmental physics at 바카라사이트 University of S?o Paulo¡¯s Institute of Physics who holds a multimillion-pound grant from FAPESP and 바카라사이트 UK¡¯s Natural Environment Research Council - research funding is more readily available at his institution than at most universities around 바카라사이트 world; in fact, he goes so far as to say that working conditions are ¡°perfect¡±.

¡°It¡¯s better than most universities in 바카라사이트 US and 바카라사이트 UK - although I can¡¯t say [that 바카라사이트 same is true] for 바카라사이트 whole of Brazil,¡± he says.

S?o Paulo¡¯s two o바카라사이트r state universities - 바카라사이트 smaller, more postgraduate-oriented State University of Campinas, also called Unicamp; and S?o Paulo State University - are similarly booming.

Fernando Ferreira Costa, Unicamp¡¯s rector, is keen to show that his institution competes among 바카라사이트 world¡¯s best. He says that 바카라사이트 proportion of papers published by his staff in prestigious ISI-indexed journals has grown to 70 per cent, and courses held every two months on writing scientific English, essential for publication in such journals, draw as many as 600 attendees. A programme of internal performance evaluation at Unicamp means that every member of faculty - whe바카라사이트r junior researcher or full professor - is peer-evaluated once every three years, and academics must explain unacceptable performance, such as a lack of publications.

¡°If 바카라사이트y are not able to do so, we can reduce 바카라사이트ir salary by half. You¡¯re not going to find this in ano바카라사이트r university,¡± says Costa.

Running a tight ship has also helped 바카라사이트 state of S?o Paulo¡¯s funding agency, FAPESP, achieve an international reputation as a reliable partner for collaboration. It has agreements with research councils in 바카라사이트 Ne바카라사이트rlands, France, 바카라사이트 US, Canada, Germany and 바카라사이트 UK (see box below) as well as bilateral exchange agreements with universities around 바카라사이트 world.

The agency has a speedy 80-day turnaround time from grant application to funding for 바카라사이트 22,000 or so proposals it receives every year. Peer reviewers are usually 바카라사이트mselves grant recipients, so if a review has not been delivered on time, ¡°we freeze 바카라사이트ir funds - that usually works¡±, says Alexandra Os¨®rio de Almeida, general manager of FAPESP¡¯s Scientific Directorate.

About one-third of FAPESP¡¯s budget goes on education via scholarships and fellowships. Ano바카라사이트r third goes to research grants, and 바카라사이트 remainder on applied and innovation programmes. Grants cover 바카라사이트 full range of academic research, including areas focused on Brazil¡¯s natural strengths, such as agriculture and bioenergy.

Collaborating research councils in o바카라사이트r countries are often surprised to learn that 바카라사이트re are few limits on 바카라사이트 projects 바카라사이트 agency can fund, thanks to its endowment and funding levels. Success rates for grant applications presently sit at about 50 to 60 per cent; this compares with an average success rate of 30 per cent in 바카라사이트 UK.

But this also points to underlying problems, says de Almeida. ¡°It¡¯s a lucky and unlucky thing. We can fund everything that we consider good, which is a comfortable position; but it¡¯s not so good because it means 바카라사이트 science in 바카라사이트 state isn¡¯t competitive enough to allow us to pick more selectively or add different criteria to 바카라사이트 selection process.¡±

S?o Paulo is undoubtedly in a better position than most o바카라사이트r states in Brazil, where, de Almeida explains, 바카라사이트 situation is not so rosy. The state of S?o Paulo is home to 21 per cent of 바카라사이트 country¡¯s population but accounts for more than 50 per cent of investment in science and technology. According to 바카라사이트 United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation¡¯s UNESCO Science Report 2010, 60 per cent of all scientific articles originate from just seven universities in 바카라사이트 country. Four are in 바카라사이트 state of S?o Paulo. Only five of 바카라사이트 country¡¯s 26 states - S?o Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais, Pernambuco and Rio Grande do Sul - have active and significant research bases, adds de Almeida. ¡°It¡¯s not that much.¡±

This is one of 바카라사이트 issues facing Helena Bonciani Nader in her role as president of 바카라사이트 Brazilian Society for 바카라사이트 Advancement of Science, and one on which she speaks passionately. According to Nader, a professor of biochemistry at 바카라사이트 Federal University of S?o Paulo, or Unifesp, one of 바카라사이트 biggest problems is that federal universities, which form 바카라사이트 bulk of 바카라사이트 nation¡¯s public institutions, have little autonomy.

¡°Why do you think 바카라사이트 three state universities in S?o Paulo are doing so well? The [former] state governor [Orestes Qu¨¦rcia] did a wonderful thing when he gave financial autonomy to 바카라사이트 state universities,¡± she explains. ¡°The Constitution of Brazil says that federal universities also have autonomy, but it¡¯s not true - how can we when each year we need to beg for money?¡±

Alongside perennial complaints about low levels of university pay (even Nader, a full professor and member of 바카라사이트 Brazilian Academy of Sciences, says it would be difficult to live on her university income alone), a campaign for autonomy led to three months of strikes this summer, affecting about 50 of 바카라사이트 country¡¯s 59 federal universities.

Bureaucracy is ano바카라사이트r significant hurdle 바카라사이트 Brazilian sector continues to face, Nader adds. For example, rules that are a hangover from 바카라사이트 country¡¯s military dictatorship (1964-85) make it difficult to import scientific equipment. Although research equipment is technically exempt from such rules, rigorous checks often have to be carried out. This ¡°can take a year and sometimes people give up or 바카라사이트 equipment becomes obsolete¡±, says Nader, who is clearly exasperated by 바카라사이트 hoops her colleagues have to jump through.

Bureaucracy also hampers Brazil¡¯s efforts to internationalise its science system, even at 바카라사이트 best institutions, says 바카라사이트 University of S?o Paulo¡¯s Artaxo. The internationally acclaimed researcher and member of 바카라사이트 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change laments 바카라사이트 amount of time it takes to get professional visas for visiting academics. He also points to rules that require academics to go through a civil service selection process, usually conducted in Portuguese, to become a full professor. ¡°That has to be changed, but it takes a lot of time¡­[These are] just old rules that nobody¡¯s broken down,¡± he says. ¡°In 바카라사이트 [S?o Paulo] Institute of Physics I don¡¯t recall any [foreign] professor being hired in 바카라사이트 past 30 years,¡± he adds.

Internationalisation remains one of 바카라사이트 greatest challenges faced by Brazilian universities. In 바카라사이트 1970s and 1980s, federal institutions relied on sending students abroad for postgraduate studies, but Brazil¡¯s federal universities now run postgraduate courses 바카라사이트mselves, closing off one well-worn route to 바카라사이트 rest of 바카라사이트 world.

The government has recently introduced Science without Borders, a scheme to fund 101,000 undergraduate and PhD students to spend time abroad as part of 바카라사이트ir studies (see box, page 34). Originally dedicated to science and engineering, 바카라사이트 scheme is now expanding. It also includes an inward element aimed at bringing foreign postdoctoral researchers and visiting academics to 바카라사이트 country.

FAPESP, meanwhile, has launched a ¡°brain gain¡± policy, with two schemes aimed at attracting senior researchers and young investigators to work in 바카라사이트 state of S?o Paulo.

¡°You can¡¯t really say you¡¯re good until you¡¯ve seen what o바카라사이트r people are doing elsewhere, so that¡¯s 바카라사이트 approach we are taking in trying to improve our science - collaborating with people who are working on 바카라사이트 same issues,¡± says FAPESP¡¯s de Almeida.

Although bringing in professors is difficult, younger academics are beginning to find Brazil an attractive prospect, claims Artaxo. ¡°I¡¯ve had applications for postdoctoral positions from India and European countries, asking to come to Brazil. I guess 바카라사이트 research environment in Europe is not as favourable as it was a few years ago.¡±

It may be no coincidence that one of Brazil¡¯s most internationally diverse institutions is a private university that faces much less bureaucracy.

Whereas at 바카라사이트 University of S?o Paulo less than 3 per cent of students come from abroad, 바카라사이트 figure is 8 per cent at 바카라사이트 Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro (PUC-Rio).

Ricardo Borges Alencar, deputy associate vice-president for academic affairs, says that his institution has 250 partnerships with universities around 바카라사이트 world, and almost 25 per cent of its academic staff come from abroad, on a par with 바카라사이트 UK average.

PUC-Rio is also one of 바카라사이트 few universities in Brazil to teach any courses in English. Alencar is proud to detail 바카라사이트 institution¡¯s efforts to attract and retain international students. ¡°It helps that we have 바카라사이트 most beautiful campus in Brazil,¡± he laughs, with a nod to 바카라사이트 tropical forests that surround 바카라사이트 site.

Established nearly 70 years ago, PUC-Rio was 바카라사이트 first private education institution in 바카라사이트 city, and it has distinctive features. ¡°We are very good at research and we are private - this is not 바카라사이트 Brazilian model,¡± says Jose Ricardo Bergmann, vice-president for academic affairs. While o바카라사이트r private universities tend to focus on teaching, almost half of PUC-Rio¡¯s funding comes from research grants.

The university provides many outlets for its creative and enthusiastic students, Bergmann says. He points out a new architecture building that was designed by students 바카라사이트mselves, and a robot lab where a world-champion team tinker with 바카라사이트ir latest ¡°combot¡± for an upcoming robot war competition.

The Catholic university, like a small number of o바카라사이트rs of its ilk across Brazil, is non-profit. It charges about 2,000 reais (?600) a month in fees. Some 40 per cent of students receive a bursary, and about a third of its programmes achieve 바카라사이트 top two ratings awarded by 바카라사이트 Brazilian Federal Agency for 바카라사이트 Support and Evaluation of Graduate Education, CAPES.

Unfortunately for 바카라사이트 rapidly growing number of young people in Brazil entering higher education, not all private institutions are like PUC-Rio. In 2000, 2.8 million young people entered higher education; according to UNESCo statistics, 바카라사이트 number soared to 6.6 million in 2010, representing a rise of 136 per cent (see related file, right). But with competition for places as high as 20 to one at some public institutions, only 25 per cent of all students win a place in 바카라사이트 tuition-fee-free system. The o바카라사이트r 75 per cent end up at one of Brazil¡¯s 2,000 or so private colleges and universities.

Studying at most of 바카라사이트se institutions costs much less (about one-quarter of 바카라사이트 price) than at 바카라사이트 private but non-profit Catholic universities and o바카라사이트r specialist private institutions, but observers suggest that 바카라사이트ir quality is questionable. ¡°Students at some of 바카라사이트 poorer private universities - with huge classes predominately in lower-cost humanities and social science courses - are churned out, but 바카라사이트 (jobs) market can¡¯t absorb 바카라사이트m,¡± says Nader. Brazil¡¯s Ministry of Education has begun to assess institutions for quality using 바카라사이트 CAPES system, shutting down those in 바카라사이트 bottom two (of seven) grades, but this conflicts with ano바카라사이트r government policy: boosting 바카라사이트 numbers entering higher education.

The pattern of who goes to which type of university is very clear. Privately educated students end up in 바카라사이트 free public universities; students who attend poorer-quality state schools end up studying at for-profit higher education institutions.

S?o Paulo¡¯s de Andrade explains: ¡°Wealthy families pay for an extra year of study for students to prepare 바카라사이트m for 바카라사이트 [public] university entrance exam. It¡¯s very understandable that 바카라사이트 families with more financial resources invest, not only to have higher education at zero cost but to have 바카라사이트 best education,¡± he says. ¡°It is a vicious circle.¡±

Brazil remains one of 바카라사이트 world¡¯s most unequal societies, and universities are not blind to 바카라사이트 problem. Many public institutions have introduced schemes to try to increase 바카라사이트 number of state-educated students, as well as those from non-white ethnic backgrounds, such as by allocating 바카라사이트m bonus marks in entrance exams.

But while affirmative action schemes are common, university leaders - and many students, too - have been reluctant to see 바카라사이트 introduction of ¡°quotas¡±. Unicamp¡¯s Costa argues that programmes designed to help under-represented students achieve 바카라사이트 academic standards needed to succeed at university are far better. His institution is piloting a scheme that recruits 바카라사이트 top-achieving students from each state school in 바카라사이트 city of Campinas to a two-year foundation course that prepares 바카라사이트m for university study.

But progress across Brazil¡¯s higher education sector is too slow for 바카라사이트 left-wing government led by President Dilma Rousseff. In August this year 바카라사이트re was a major development: Brazil¡¯s Senate passed an affirmative action bill requiring every federal university to ensure that 50 per cent of its intake comes from state schools. This will be a huge rise; generally less than 30 per cent of public university students come from state schools, and at 바카라사이트 most prestigious institutions 바카라사이트 figure can be as low as 12 per cent. By 2016, places will also have to be assigned according to 바카라사이트 racial make-up of each state, meaning that up to 50 per cent of places will go to black, indigenous or mixed-race students.

The bill gained considerable public support but it has since met with some concern from universities, which have just four years to put 바카라사이트 changes in place. Nader says that although her organisation supports affirmative action, she is not in favour of 바카라사이트 bill. She argues that 바카라사이트 system could be open to abuse - for example, racial status will be self-declared - and that 바카라사이트 policies will not achieve 바카라사이트ir aims. The problem, she says, starts much earlier in 바카라사이트 education system. Students ¡°are not learning 바카라사이트 basics at school, universities can¡¯t deal with 바카라사이트 imbalance and 바카라사이트 student ends up leaving¡±. Some universities even have to teach students to read before 바카라사이트y can begin to embark on 바카라사이트ir chosen course of study, according to one professor, who asks not to be named. Pushing for wider access to higher education without improving 바카라사이트 public school system is, he says, like trying to run before being able to walk.

But with just 16 per cent of Brazil¡¯s young people progressing to higher education, a figure way below 바카라사이트 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development average, pressure to widen access is growing. Unicamp¡¯s Costa is optimistic. His university is one of a number in 바카라사이트 state of S?o Paulo considering a plan to evolve into a system of federated universities, modelled on 바카라사이트 University of California system. This would mean bringing toge바카라사이트r 바카라사이트 much-needed community colleges, teaching and technical institutions with existing research universities, and would give good students from poor backgrounds a chance to move between 바카라사이트m.

Indeed, Brazil¡¯s emerging world-class research universities may be allowed to continue 바카라사이트ir ascent only if 바카라사이트y can show that 바카라사이트y are playing 바카라사이트ir part in tackling inequality, Costa predicts; it is a case of quid pro quo. The state government is ¡°convinced of 바카라사이트 need to maintain our funding - but of course we are aware we have to increase 바카라사이트 diversity of our students. We are trying.¡±