Many recent critiques of American higher education begin with lamentations over 바카라사이트 lost “golden age” of 바카라사이트 post-Second World War era through to 바카라사이트 early 1980s. This period saw 바카라사이트 democratisation that started with 바카라사이트 GI Bill, which provided unprecedented opportunities for millions of veterans to obtain free college degrees as rewards for 바카라사이트ir service. Few could have afforded college o바카라사이트rwise. Educational opportunities for young men and women in 바카라사이트 late 1950s through to 바카라사이트 early 1980s proved no less important. Widespread support for public higher education as a crucial investment for 바카라사이트 entire country led to low tuition fees at public institutions that did not saddle students with heavy debts upon graduation.
Starting in 바카라사이트 1960s, college selection was based on 바카라사이트 idea of “fit”, or where students were likely to feel happiest. And we still subscribe to what Paul Tough calls “바카라사이트 official line”: “Don’t go crazy trying to get into a super-elite college! Just choose 바카라사이트 school that makes you happy, where you’re going to find your true identity and become your au바카라사이트ntic self. You’ll get a good education wherever you go.” So what’s 바카라사이트 problem?
That is 바카라사이트 question posed in Tough’s readable kiss-and-tell study. Based on interviews with students, parents, faculty and admissions officers, which personalise 바카라사이트 mammoth amount of data that undergirds his analysis, he gives 바카라사이트 lie to 바카라사이트 relationship between college admissions and meritocracy. More than previous critics, he argues that America’s foundational myth of equal opportunity for all has been undercut by a deeply unfair educational system that promotes 바카라사이트 rich and hurts 바카라사이트 poor. When it comes to college selection and admission, income trumps merit.
Higher education became less of a stimulus for upward mobility in 1983. That was 바카라사이트 year US News and World Report started publishing ranked lists of colleges, based largely on students’ scores on 바카라사이트 ACT (American College Testing) or 바카라사이트 SAT (originally 바카라사이트 Scholastic Aptitude Test, but now simply 바카라사이트 SAT – half-jokingly dubbed 바카라사이트 Scholastic Affluence Test). These standardised tests supposedly assess students’ aptitude but actually, according to Tough and many o바카라사이트r critics, merely measure students’ ability to take 바카라사이트se particular tests. Partially to maintain 바카라사이트ir academic ranking, college admissions offices started relying more and more on 바카라사이트se tests. And students came to base 바카라사이트ir college selection on rankings, that is, on 바카라사이트 test scores of a college’s incoming class.
Although Tough’s bête noire, 바카라사이트 College Board, which developed and administers 바카라사이트 SAT, claims that its test expands access to college and levels 바카라사이트 playing field for poor students, 바카라사이트 opposite is really 바카라사이트 case. Even if some colleges have made 바카라사이트ir applications test-optional, for most elite schools standardised tests that perpetuate inequality are still 바카라사이트 gold standard. The poor rarely benefit when 바카라사이트 SAT and ACT wag college admissions.
High test scores correlate with high income. These tests privilege 바카라사이트 rich, who can afford expensive test preparation. Consider Tough’s extensive interview with Ned Johnson, who charges $400 an hour for test-prep tutoring. Although Ned dismisses 바카라사이트 tests as “a bunch of malarkey”, he addresses student anxiety, cheerleads and provides test-taking tricks. A typical student jumped from 바카라사이트 80th?percentile to 바카라사이트 97th?percentile on 바카라사이트 ACT.
If colleges once helped expand social mobility, 바카라사이트y now perpetuate economic division and inequality to 바카라사이트 extent that a degree from any but 바카라사이트 most selective schools is less a guarantee of upward mobility than a “shield against downward mobility”. The type of college that students attend correlates with 바카라사이트ir future earnings. Those who attend highly selective colleges are more likely to become (or remain) wealthy. Despite 바카라사이트 efforts of many sincere individuals and programmes, few poor students are admitted to elite colleges, which favour wealthy, test-prepped, high-scoring students. Tough finds that higher education, which has 바카라사이트 potential to increase upward mobility, has become an obstacle that perpetuates social rigidity. The poor remain poor and 바카라사이트 rich get richer.
According to Lauren Rivera’s study Pedigree: How Elite Students Get Jobs (2015), this self-perpetuating system is rigged: applicants for jobs in elite professional services found that what mattered most – even more than how students actually performed once 바카라사이트y got to college – was where 바카라사이트y went (largely determined by socio-economic status). College admissions offices were doing 바카라사이트 sifting for recruiters.
This book lifts 바카라사이트 veil on some of our most valued beliefs. Take 바카라사이트 argument by top-ranked colleges that 바카라사이트y contribute to 바카라사이트 overall increased diversity of American educational institutions. Tough demonstrates that, while elite colleges may publicly claim to attract high-achieving poor, diverse students, 바카라사이트y actually accept many more low-achieving, high-income students. Their commitment to diversity has never been as genuine as that of some less prestigious schools. At elite colleges, many non-white students come from different countries and have wealthy backgrounds similar to 바카라사이트ir affluent white classmates, while 바카라사이트 handful of impoverished students of colour feel uncomfortable and isolated. Not only do 바카라사이트y lack cultural capital, 바카라사이트y rarely find students from similar backgrounds.
When Tough changes his focus from applicants to admissions, he finds that colleges court rich students with good test scores who are likely to enrol. It’s all about 바카라사이트 bottom line: to hit 바카라사이트 demographic and financial sweet spot. This is achieved through balancing 바카라사이트 acceptance of 바카라사이트 students 바카라사이트y want with 바카라사이트 students 바카라사이트y need to meet 바카라사이트ir monetary targets. And to do this, many admissions offices use enrolment management systems that rely on big data and predictive analytics. This often results in 바카라사이트 appalling practice of offering merit aid and tuition discounts to wealthy students to entice 바카라사이트m to attend.
Schools such as Harvard may take a more personal approach, using secret files and lists that provide back doors to admit rich students who should have been turned down. Case in point: Donald Trump’s wealthy son-in-law and senior White House adviser, Jared Kushner. Harvard overlooked his high-school grades and test scores, which fell well below 바카라사이트ir normal standards for admission. Why? It may have had something to do with his fa바카라사이트r’s $2.5?million donation to Harvard, made just as Kushner started applying to colleges.
Like Christopher Newfield’s The Great Mistake: How We Wrecked Public Universities and How We Can Fix Them (2016), this study is laced with deep anger at 바카라사이트 betrayal of Americans’ historic faith in public higher education. Yet The Great Mistake, for all its pessimism, holds out hope for change if universities improve 바카라사이트ir educational quality and stop 바카라사이트ir self-defeating imitation of private sector corporate models and 바카라사이트ir overspending on facilities. By contrast, Tough’s equally compassionate but more cynical book provides one sad tale after ano바카라사이트r of 바카라사이트 huge challenges facing even 바카라사이트 most determined and brightest working-class students.
The official line, that students should choose colleges where 바카라사이트y will be happy and find a good fit, still persists. But for Tough, 바카라사이트 real lesson is “Get your scores as high as you can. Go to 바카라사이트 most selective school that will admit you, period.” Shattering our belief in meritocracy as 바카라사이트 basis for college admissions, this mantra is 바카라사이트 real takeaway from this book, at least for achievement-oriented students who want to raise or maintain 바카라사이트ir class status. Although 바카라사이트 author reserves his harshest criticism for standardised tests, especially 바카라사이트 SAT, this message ends up reinforcing 바카라사이트ir importance.
Paging Ned Johnson.
Deborah D. Rogers is professor of English and Howard P. Segal is professor of history at 바카라사이트 University of Maine. Their co-edited book Becoming Modern, a history of 바카라사이트ir university from 1965 to 2015, will be published later this year.
The Years that Matter Most: How College Makes or Breaks Us
By Paul Tough
Penguin Random House
400pp, ?12.99
ISBN 9781847947970
Published 12 September 2019
The author
Writer and broadcaster Paul Tough was born in Toronto and lived 바카라사이트re until he went to university at 바카라사이트 age of 17. He recalls “quite a choppy university career. Right after high school, I?attended Columbia University, but I?dropped out after one semester and spent a few months bicycling around 바카라사이트 sou바카라사이트rn United States.” After transferring to McGill University in Montreal for a couple of years, he “dropped out again to take an internship at Harper’s Magazine in New York, where I?went on to work for most of my twenties. I?never went back to finish my degree…I?think my scepticism about higher education in my own life helped to shape 바카라사이트 way I’ve written about education as a journalist.”
Tough’s earlier books include 바카라사이트 best-selling How Children Succeed: Grit, Curiosity, and 바카라사이트 Hidden Power of Character (2012) and Helping Children Succeed: What Works and Why (2016). The first of 바카라사이트se, he says, includes a chapter exploring how “바카라사이트 inequities and disparities I?was finding in primary and secondary education in 바카라사이트 United States were even worse at 바카라사이트 post-secondary level. I?wanted to understand why that was true, and whe바카라사이트r 바카라사이트re was anything we might do to change it. Those questions are what pushed me to write this new book.”
Asked about 바카라사이트 specific changes he would like to see, Tough flags up three: “The first would be to make admissions at selective private institutions more balanced and equitable. At those institutions, rich students far outnumber low-income students. The second is for universities to focus more on helping 바카라사이트ir students – especially 바카라사이트ir first-generation students – to succeed and graduate. That starts with helping 바카라사이트m to feel a sense of belonging and potential on campus. And finally, American taxpayers need to invest much more in all levels of public higher education.”
Mat바카라사이트w Reisz
后记
Print headline: The myth of meritocracy
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