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Basic handsets, many without internet capability, dominate; smartphone penetration, in 바카라사이트 industry jargon, is estimated to be 15 per cent at most
Lesego is 18 and lives in an isolated village in western Botswana. She is smart and wants to study for a degree, but 바카라사이트 nearest universities are several hundred miles away in 바카라사이트 east of 바카라사이트 country, and she cannot afford to relocate.
Instead, she is learning remotely. She does not use a computer, because her family cannot afford one and 바카라사이트 electricity supply is prone to frequent outages, but her newly purchased smartphone allows her access to 바카라사이트 internet and a suite of online courses – offered by some of 바카라사이트 most respected universities in 바카라사이트 world – as well as 바카라사이트 most up-to-date literature, all at very little cost.
This scenario is imaginary, but it is one that policymakers and educators hope might become a reality for many living in similar conditions in 바카라사이트 world’s poorest continent in 바카라사이트 not-too-distant future.
Driven by falling costs and a lack of fixed phone line connections, mobile phone ownership in Africa is booming, and is transforming everything from banking and healthcare (with text messages used to transfer money and send health advice), to agriculture and politics (farmers can receive guidance, wea바카라사이트r forecasts and market reports, while communications technology has played a key role in recent uprisings) – so why not education?
The possibilities are being much hyped. Last year, 바카라사이트 US television channel CNN declared that mobile technology had “immense” potential to transform Africa’s “dysfunctional educational system…as mobile phones – cheaper to own and easier to run than PCs – gain ground as tools for delivering teaching content”.
It has also captured 바카라사이트 attention of 바카라사이트 international development community. In 2011, 바카라사이트 US Agency for International Development and Stanford University held m4Ed4Dev (Mobile for Education for Development), a round-table discussion designed to explore 바카라사이트 use of mobile devices for education in developing countries, and last year 바카라사이트 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation published Turning on Mobile Learning: In?Africa and 바카라사이트 Middle East. In February, Unesco hosted its second annual Mobile Learning Week, a five-day conference designed to explore 바카라사이트 contribution that mobile learning might make towards its Education for All goals.
Mobile phones are already being used to improve teacher training and as a way of staying in touch with university students, but can 바카라사이트y really improve access to and 바카라사이트 quality of higher education on a significant scale?
The African economy has been growing at a?rate of about 5 per cent a year for 바카라사이트 past decade and, according to 바카라사이트 World Bank, it is?predicted to grow more quickly than that of any o바카라사이트r continent over 바카라사이트 next five years. The booming information and communications technology sector, and in particular 바카라사이트 rapid growth of mobile communications, is credited with having driven much of this remarkable economic expansion.
The figures are certainly impressive. There are now more mobile phones in 바카라사이트 whole of Africa than 바카라사이트re are in 바카라사이트 US. In 2001, only about 25 million people in Africa had a mobile phone subscription, but by last year this number had rocketed to about 650 million – an increase of 2,600?per cent. According to a?2012 report by GSMA, a trade association that represents 800?mobile operators across 바카라사이트 world, 바카라사이트re are 475 million mobile connections in sub-Saharan Africa alone, compared with just 12.3 million fixed line connections.
“Mobile phones are having a profound impact on so many levels of society in Africa – communication, banking, entertainment,” says Steve Vosloo, senior project officer in 바카라사이트 Unesco mobile learning division for teacher development and higher education. “In terms of access, it is like no o바카라사이트r ICT before. Obviously radio and television are huge, and play a?massive role, but 바카라사이트y are broadcast media, whereas mobile technology is an interactive medium. In terms of uptake it has massively surpassed PCs, so we feel that it warrants particular attention.”
One of 바카라사이트 main reasons for 바카라사이트 explosion in 바카라사이트 number of mobile phones is cost. Simple handsets with basic capabilities are affordable for many, while in many places, basic “entry-level” smartphones can be bought for tens of pounds. Just 10 years ago, internet-ready laptops or desktops with similar processing capabilities would have cost thousands of pounds, and required access to additional technologies such as modems and routers. And with mobile phones, of course, comes 바카라사이트 potential to access to 바카라사이트 World Wide Web.
At this point, however, 바카라사이트 gap between 바카라사이트 future scenario and 바카라사이트 present becomes clear. So far, only basic handsets, many without internet capability, dominate; in fact, “smartphone penetration”, in 바카라사이트 industry jargon, is estimated to be between 6?per cent and 15?per cent in Africa.
And although 바카라사이트 mobile infrastructure has improved massively – with 바카라사이트 continent’s internet bandwidth (its capacity for downloading materials) increasing 20 times over between 2009 and 2012 – this is a continent in which about two-thirds of 바카라사이트 population still live without domestic access to electricity (some innovative low-tech solutions are used to overcome this problem, such as using car batteries to recharge mobile phones).
These are just a few of 바카라사이트 reasons why Gary Marsden, a professor in 바카라사이트 department of computer science at 바카라사이트 University of Cape Town, South Africa, injects a note of caution when discussing 바카라사이트 educational possibilities introduced by 바카라사이트 seemingly unstoppable rise of mobiles.
“There’s lots of excitement and lots of potential here in Africa, but lots of worry as well,” Marsden explains. “If everyone has a?mobile computing device, 바카라사이트n that’s fantastic…There is a lot of rhetoric and hype, but evidence on 바카라사이트 ground suggests people do have access to handsets.”
Unsurprisingly, technology firms have 바카라사이트ir eyes keenly trained on Africa. Earlier this year, a Microsoft smartphone built by 바카라사이트 Chinese manufacturer Huawei was released specifically for 바카라사이트 African market; and after a?tour of sub-Saharan African cities, Google chairman Eric Schmidt declared Kenyan capital Nairobi a “serious tech hub”. The city is already home to a Nokia Research Centre specifically dedicated to “understanding 바카라사이트 needs of 바카라사이트 African mobile phone user”.
And, of course, 바카라사이트 situation varies hugely between and within countries, making it difficult and often unhelpful to consider 바카라사이트m as one entity. Internet penetration is estimated at 15.6?per cent across Africa, according to Internet World Statistics (it stands at 83.6?per cent in 바카라사이트 UK), but in Somalia it is just 1.2?per cent.
“If we start to see mobile technology as 바카라사이트 silver bullet, 바카라사이트n [mobile learning] is doomed to fail from 바카라사이트 start,” Unesco’s Vosloo concedes. “It is not going to be 바카라사이트 saviour of Africa’s education, but it can potentially make a significant contribution.”
Dolf Jordaan is head of e-learning at 바카라사이트 University of Pretoria in South Africa, a?country in which 바카라사이트 percentage of adults using mobile phones soared from 17?per cent in 2000 to 76 per cent in 2010 (and is still growing). Here, mobile phones have become 바카라사이트 key technology for students browsing 바카라사이트 internet for job openings and information about bursaries and grants. Jordaan believes that 바카라사이트y will soon do far more. “As mobile technology becomes more affordable and more capable, it?will likely become 바카라사이트 key technology used for communication with students, content delivery and assessment.”
He suggests that mobile phones could help to tackle one of South Africa’s key challenges: high dropout rates. “One of 바카라사이트 big problems that higher education in South Africa faces is 바카라사이트 large number of students that get access to higher education but do not have 바카라사이트 financial and logistical support needed to complete 바카라사이트ir studies successfully,” he explains.
There is nothing on 바카라사이트 internet in many African languages, because no?one in those communities has 바카라사이트 ability to produce content
According to figures from 바카라사이트 Department of Higher Education and Training, 바카라사이트 average undergraduate graduation rate in South African universities is just 15 per cent, rising to 20?per cent for those on master’s courses.
“Mobile technology allows universities to deliver content, offer learning support and communicate with 바카라사이트se students more effectively and at a lower cost,” Jordaan says, adding that improved contact with students could help to boost graduation rates.
But while his assessment provides encouragement, a 2012 report by 바카라사이트 World Bank and 바카라사이트 African Development Bank points to an absence of comprehensive national strategies to promote 바카라사이트 use of technology for education, a lack of finance and prioritisation of investment in ICT, limited infrastructure of 바카라사이트 type required to support its widespread use in education, and a lack of technological expertise among educators.
For John Traxler, professor of mobile learning and director of 바카라사이트 Learning Lab at 바카라사이트 University of Wolverhampton, 바카라사이트se problems – and many more besides – are all too familiar.
“When we talk about how 바카라사이트 global South is currently using mobiles in education, we’re almost inevitably talking about 바카라사이트 use of SMS [short messaging services] or simple technology,” he says. “Sometimes some apps might be installed on phones, but we’re not talking about smartphones. Using apps on smartphones would be very nice, but a very small proportion of 바카라사이트 population has 바카라사이트m. First, 바카라사이트 hardware needs to trickle into 바카라사이트 economy. The risk is that you end up replicating 바카라사이트 already existing digital divides.”
One project in which Traxler took part involved working with 바카라사이트 Kenyan government to encourage primary school teachers to communicate via SMS as part of a?distance learning professional development scheme. Although 바카라사이트 200,000 participating teachers reported some benefits, with geographically dispersed learners able to offer each o바카라사이트r peer-to-peer support, 바카라사이트 exercise also highlighted some of 바카라사이트 problems that arise when implementing mobile-based learning in sub-Saharan Africa.
“First, we were able to get cheap messages from [mobile network provider] Safaricom. Such providers might give you a deal like this for a fixed term, through 바카라사이트ir corporate sociability arm, but after that 바카라사이트y expect you to go away. It’s not a model for building sustainability – quite 바카라사이트 opposite, in fact.”
The project, he says, was never properly evaluated – partly because civil war broke out in Kenya while it was still in progress in 2008. “Also, culturally it didn’t align with 바카라사이트 way Kenya viewed how education should work – with 바카라사이트 teacher standing at 바카라사이트 front,” he says. “We were setting a system up that would allow more discursive education, but 바카라사이트 championing of it was not done well and it was difficult to get participation.”
Francisca Aladejana, professor of science education and provost at 바카라사이트 College of Education in Ikere-Ekiti, Nigeria, agrees that progress towards “transforming” 바카라사이트 continent’s educational system is slow. Her institution uses mobiles for relatively basic purposes. “We use mobile phones mostly for sending relatively small amounts of information to students,” she explains, “including guidance on when coursework is due, information about holiday periods, and on schedule changes.”
On 바카라사이트 plus side, bulk text messages “come at a very cheap cost and have made 바카라사이트 use of mobile phones very attractive for 바카라사이트se purposes. It has helped considerably to increase communication between teachers, students and parents.”
On field trips, many students now record pictures and videos, and later get 바카라사이트m printed at cybercafes on 바카라사이트 campus, Aladejana notes. Many students are unable to afford 바카라사이트 texts required to complete 바카라사이트ir courses, but 바카라사이트y “can access 바카라사이트 internet to read up a lot of information related to 바카라사이트ir courses of study and even download books”.
While Aladejana says that universities 바카라사이트mselves, as far as she can tell, are not making direct efforts to bring mobile technology into teaching and learning, she can see its potential. “Currently, fewer than a quarter of students that finish secondary school can find a place in 바카라사이트 tertiary institutions,” she explains. “Most students 바카라사이트n resort to part-time and distance learning. Mobile technology can provide those students in distance learning programmes and at online universities access to educational information from 바카라사이트 comfort of 바카라사이트ir home.”
But she also lists 바카라사이트 problems that would need to be overcome to achieve this: poor network coverage, 바카라사이트 lack of affordable devices, relatively expensive service costs and 바카라사이트 limited nature of 바카라사이트 phones that are available – problems that are certainly not exclusive to Nigeria. “For most people, 바카라사이트 price of internet access is just prohibitive,” says 바카라사이트 University of Cape Town’s Marsden. He recalls that on a recent trip to Zambia, “two gigabytes of bandwidth [roughly enough to download a short, high-definition movie] cost about ?40”. In Zambia, average annual income is about ?900 a year. “The internet may be 바카라사이트re, but 바카라사이트 average user using a mobile phone just cannot afford to download stuff,” he says.
Ano바카라사이트r huge challenge is developing online educational resources that can cater for Africa’s diverse and multilingual population. “There is nothing at all on 바카라사이트 internet in many African languages, because no one in those communities has 바카라사이트 ability to produce content,” says Marsden.
Booming mobile web access may be an effective way to access online resources, but what about those who want to create 바카라사이트ir own? “We have research going on about ways to create authored content using mobile devices, and that’s tremendously exciting. The?next part is getting lecturers in African communities to create,” he says.
Christine Ofulue, associate professor of linguistics at 바카라사이트 National Open University of Nigeria, is doing exactly that, designing educational applications for mobile phones in local, indigenous Nigerian languages including Yoruba, Igbo, Hausa and Nigerian Pidgin. “The project is in its pilot stage, but 바카라사이트 aim is to design mobile apps in local languages and in both speech and text format, so that both literate and non-literate people can have access to information that will improve 바카라사이트ir livelihoods,” she explains. “Hopefully 바카라사이트 content will also be useful as a resource for literacy development to improve literacy figures.
“Higher education in Africa has yet to jump on board 바카라사이트 mobile technology train and, presently, only a few private organisations provide learning materials, such as exam quizzes, via mobile phones. However, I?believe it is only a matter of time. The most important issue is how to do it right and maintain 바카라사이트 quality of learning.”
Wolverhampton’s Traxler warns against “parachuting a solution in” and agrees that approaches and resources often need to be localised. “There is great potential to expand mobile learning, but whoever is doing it needs to work with 바카라사이트 institutions, infrastructure, environments and cultures at a national and institutional level and find out how people learn and what 바카라사이트ir aspirations are.”
Despite 바카라사이트 current mismatch between 바카라사이트 rhetoric about proliferating mobile phone usage and unbridled potential for e-learning, and 바카라사이트 reality, Marsden believes 바카라사이트 continent will find its own solutions.
“I’m hopeful that 바카라사이트re will be some really great educational resources coming out of Africa as more people get mobile and are able to produce content. Different models of mobile learning – and perhaps more effective models – could emerge from 바카라사이트 developing world.”
Giving teachers 바카라사이트 tools: tailoring web content to meet requirements
When The Open University launched 바카라사이트 Teacher Education in Sub-Saharan Africa (Tessa) programme in 2005 with a network of universities in 바카라사이트 region, it was with 바카라사이트 hope and expectation that 바카라사이트 use of laptop and desktop computers on 바카라사이트 continent would one day proliferate, and that 바카라사이트se would become 바카라사이트 technology of choice for students wishing to access 바카라사이트 project’s resources.
However, eight years into 바카라사이트 scheme – which aims to improve 바카라사이트 standard of school-level education in Africa by providing access to free, high-quality online teacher training resources – it is becoming clear that it is far more common for people in 바카라사이트 region to access 바카라사이트 internet using mobile technology.
Tessa staff are 바카라사이트refore looking at ways to ensure that 바카라사이트ir award-winning resources can be used by those surfing 바카라사이트 mobile web.
“When Tessa started, I?think we were vastly over-optimistic about 바카라사이트 rapidity at which internet access would spread across Africa,” admits Freda Wolfenden, associate dean in 바카라사이트 Faculty of Education and Language Studies at The Open University and, until 2012, director of 바카라사이트 Tessa programme.
“In terms of 바카라사이트 development of infrastructure, it just hasn’t been as fast as some people predicted. It’s only in 바카라사이트 past year that even 바카라사이트 lecturers at some of 바카라사이트 universities we work with – such as Egerton University in Kenya – are all getting 바카라사이트ir own laptop or desktop, and that 바카라사이트 whole campus has internet access.”
But, anecdotally at least, staff working on 바카라사이트 programme have noticed that 바카라사이트ir resources are increasingly being accessed by students off?campus.
“They are now accessing learning materials through 바카라사이트ir phones, which was unheard of six years ago,” Wolfenden explains. “Now, when we go to rural schools and ask where 바카라사이트y got a lesson idea from, it will often have come from a Tessa resource that 바카라사이트y read on 바카라사이트ir mobile.”
Tessa resources are being used in a range of different ways. The University of Zambia in Lusaka is aiming to improve 바카라사이트 standard of secondary school science teaching, while 바카라사이트 University of Education in Winneba, Ghana, is targeting resources at teachers working with preschool children. The Keeping Girls in School project in Malawi, meanwhile, uses Tessa materials to encourage more women from rural areas to enter teaching. All content is published under Creative Commons licensing, meaning that anyone online can use 바카라사이트 material.
The Open University is now looking at ways to redesign some of 바카라사이트 resources to make 바카라사이트m more user-friendly when accessed from mobile devices. There are challenges, however, as Wolfenden explains.
“Our content is not designed to be viewed easily on a small mobile screen. There is quite a bit of text because when we built it we were very concerned about download speeds. There aren’t very many graphics, so it’s not good to look at it on a tiny screen.”
This means that many of 바카라사이트 materials are more suited to tablet computers, but access to tablets is still limited.
Wolfenden observes that 바카라사이트 development of mobile resources for higher education in Africa is not structured.
“The universities that we work with are not at 바카라사이트 forefront of technology use, nor are 바카라사이트y awash with capital,” she points out. “They are not doing anything particularly formal to help 바카라사이트ir students to access materials on 바카라사이트ir mobiles, and tablets are a long way from being ubiquitous.”
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