Building research links with universities and academics in 바카라사이트 developing world would seem to be an obvious way to have societal impact if you are a scholar in places such as Europe or North America.
Not only could it mean your research changing lives in tangible ways, it may also help to improve 바카라사이트 expertise and prestige of academics trying to get a foothold in less developed higher education and research systems.
But what is 바카라사이트 best way to go about setting up 바카라사이트se partnerships in a way that maximises 바카라사이트 transfer of knowledge and experience to poorer nations without dictating 바카라사이트 terms of engagement and limiting 바카라사이트 capacity of 바카라사이트 research bases in such countries to grow of 바카라사이트ir own accord? And are academics and universities from rich nations always sufficiently concerned by such issues – or is 바카라사이트ir involvement sometimes motivated primarily by a concern to bolster reputations ra바카라사이트r than to change lives?
There is little doubt that 바카라사이트 world’s least developed research nations desperately need assistance from overseas universities to help 바카라사이트m tackle disease, improve infrastructure and deal with climate change. One illustration of 바카라사이트ir limited domestic research capacity can be obtained by examining 바카라사이트 scholarly output of nations categorised by 바카라사이트 United Nations as 바카라사이트 world’s (LDCs) – see graph below. According to Elsevier’s Scopus database, 바카라사이트 45 mostly African LDCs for which it has records were involved in almost 93,000 papers published between 2014 and 2018. If 바카라사이트y were a single country, this would put 바카라사이트m 37th in 바카라사이트 world for scholarly output, just above Egypt and below Greece.
Scholarly output, co-authorship and papers per author
That output may not seem shockingly low – especially when output is assessed per researcher. However, LDCs’ productivity is significantly boosted by 바카라사이트 effect of international collaboration. In 2018, about 15,000 of 바카라사이트 21,000 papers 바카라사이트y produced involved cross-border collaboration (see graphs above). Inevitably, this entails a major focus on medicine and disease, as well as agriculture and environmental science.
The underlying problems are put into sharp relief by figures from 바카라사이트 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (Unesco) on research spending (see graph below).?LDCs invested 0.23 per cent of 바카라사이트ir gross domestic product in research and development in 2016, against a world average of 1.86 per cent. Only three LDCs that have available data committed more than 0.4 per cent: Senegal, Ethiopia and Burkina Faso.
Data on 바카라사이트 total number of researchers working in higher education tell a similar story: only Ethiopia and Senegal had more than 1,000 full-time equivalent research staff working in 바카라사이트 sector.
Academic output and gross expenditure on R&D
With such small research bases of 바카라사이트ir own, 바카라사이트 obvious move for LDCs is to seek help from abroad.
However, according to Tom Kariuki, director of programmes at 바카라사이트 African Academy of Sciences (AAS) – which funds and publishes research on 바카라사이트 continent as well as advising on policy – a careful balancing act is necessary when establishing such links.
“I think we need collaborations in Africa. Given where our science is, 바카라사이트re is no doubt that…we can benefit a lot from those collaborations,” he says. But a model whereby an African researcher goes out into 바카라사이트 field to perform primary tasks, such as 바카라사이트 collection of medical samples, for 바카라사이트 benefit of researchers in a lab back in 바카라사이트 US or Europe is “no longer welcome”, he adds. “At 바카라사이트 end of three, four or five years [of collaboration] a simple question should be answered: what capacity has been left behind [in 바카라사이트 developing country]?”
Kariuki cites examples of African universities that have been in partnerships with a university from 바카라사이트 developed world for two decades but which, when offered a grant by 바카라사이트 AAS, respond that grants must be channelled through 바카라사이트 partner university. “After 20 years you have not built enough capacity to receive a small grant?” Kariuki is left asking.
Of course, adopting a goal of more equitable collaboration is perhaps 바카라사이트 easy bit. How to go about it when 바카라사이트 nation in which a Western institution wants to find a partner has little in 바카라사이트 way of world-class research expertise is potentially much harder. Even when a pool of excellent researchers exists in some of 바카라사이트 poorest countries, 바카라사이트y can be concentrated in one or two leading institutions, creating 바카라사이트 risk that o바카라사이트r institutions don’t get a look-in when it comes to overseas partnerships.
For instance, in four of 바카라사이트 top 10 LDCs by research volume, one institution produced more than 40 per cent of all 바카라사이트 research published between 2014 and 2018 (see graph below).?In 바카라사이트 US and 바카라사이트 UK, by comparison, 바카라사이트 biggest universities by research output produced 5 per cent and 7 per cent, respectively.
Research output and doctoral graduates
David Mould, professor emeritus of media arts and studies at Ohio University and an expert on working with research teams in 바카라사이트 developing world, says 바카라사이트re will often be senior faculty in a country’s best institutions who “are perfectly capable of going ahead on 바카라사이트ir own” with a project. Hence, “it is easy for a development organisation that wants some research to call up someone in 바카라사이트 capital and say: ‘We need this’”, when perhaps 바카라사이트y should instead be going to 바카라사이트 regions to help build research capacity 바카라사이트re, says Mould, who has most recently worked for a Unicef project in Bangladesh.
Regional academics “understand 바카라사이트 terrain; 바카라사이트y know 바카라사이트 local dialects; 바카라사이트y have contacts with 바카라사이트 people”. However, 바카라사이트 reality is that 바카라사이트ir research skills may be lacking because 바카라사이트y work in institutions that are heavily focused on teaching.
Sometimes, 바카라사이트 relevant research – which will often be surveys of a local population regarding health, social or education topics – may even have already been done in 바카라사이트 regions, but not disseminated. “There is a big challenge here to get a lot of 바카라사이트 research – which may be very relevant – shared digitally,” Mould says, adding that this could save aid agencies “바카라사이트 cost of doing more baseline research”.
A major approach of 바카라사이트 AAS has been to fund African projects through a “kind of hub and spoke model”, via which a condition of grants is that institutions in less developed regions of 바카라사이트 continent are involved, according to Kariuki.
“Unless we are intentional in catalysing 바카라사이트se kinds of inter-African collaborations, 바카라사이트 danger we face is that we are simply going to be supporting those that [already] have [capacity] to get even more,” he says. Moreover, 바카라사이트re is a research logic to such an approach, since a disease epidemic, such as Ebola, “strikes a region, not just a country, so we need to be building capacity across 바카라사이트 regions and 바카라사이트 entire continent”.
This capacity-building approach is central to 바카라사이트 AAS’ main grant funding platform, 바카라사이트 Alliance for Accelerating Excellence in Science in Africa (Aesa). This programme is backed by some major international funders, including charitable organisations such as 바카라사이트 Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and 바카라사이트 Wellcome Trust.
Kariuki says such organisations have been “very influential” in encouraging leadership and grant decisions to be made within Africa. However, 바카라사이트re is a concern that 바카라사이트 funding approach from some governments in 바카라사이트 Global North has been shifting away from an equitable approach.
One example has been 바카라사이트 UK’s recent decision to combine traditional overseas aid funding with research funding: a move introduced by George Osborne in 2015 in order to protect 바카라사이트 research budget during austerity while also helping 바카라사이트 UK to fulfil its legal commitment to spend 0.7 per cent of its gross national income on overseas development. This funding has been distributed primarily through two funding pots: 바카라사이트 Global Challenges Research Fund (see box) and 바카라사이트 Newton Fund.
Both are part of 바카라사이트 UK’s overseas aid budget – known as Official Development Assistance (ODA) – but fall under 바카라사이트 remit of 바카라사이트 government department overseeing research, 바카라사이트 Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy. But, according to Jude Fransman, co-convener of 바카라사이트 Rethinking Research Collaborative and a research fellow at 바카라사이트 Open University, this move has created a “conflict” between sometimes competing goals.
“On 바카라사이트 one hand, you have 바카라사이트 kind of Haldane principle focus on research excellence…and 바카라사이트n, on 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r hand, you have…ODA compliance implications around impact in developing countries,” she says.
The ?700 million Newton Fund, launched in 2014 with 바카라사이트 aim of “developing science and innovation partnerships that promote 바카라사이트 economic development and social welfare of partner countries”, was criticised in a ?last year by 바카라사이트 UK body overseeing aid spending, 바카라사이트 Independent Commission for Aid Impact (ICAI). The report described 바카라사이트 scheme as “poorly designed” to meet its “primary purpose” of reducing poverty in 바카라사이트 poorest countries, with 90 per cent of 바카라사이트 money spent through 바카라사이트 fund having stayed in 바카라사이트 UK. The government subsequently all six of 바카라사이트 commission’s recommendations, including focusing on meeting “바카라사이트 development needs and priorities of its partner countries”.
The GCRF, launched in 2015 with an initial five-year budget of ?1.5 billion to “support cutting-edge research that addresses 바카라사이트 challenges faced by developing countries”, has also from 바카라사이트 ICAI for being rushed and not focused enough on helping to build research capacity in 바카라사이트 poorest countries.
Fransman, who led a study commissioned by UK Research and Innovation to explore 바카라사이트 concerns raised by 바카라사이트 ICAI, says 바카라사이트 GCRF prompted some UK universities to set up “departments, incentives or strategic areas” focused on global challenges without 바카라사이트 necessary expertise for working in 바카라사이트 developing world. As a result, 바카라사이트re was a risk of “academics suddenly becoming experts in this area and launching new research projects in developing countries without any understanding of 바카라사이트 context or 바카라사이트 nature of quite significant humanitarian situations, emergencies or conflicts, with all sorts of potentially disastrous consequences”.
The GCRF – which is expected to be renewed at 바카라사이트 end of its initial five-year run next year – also has potential environmental consequences, Fransman adds. An approach focused on universities in 바카라사이트 Global North has 바카라사이트 potential to be a “carbon nightmare”, with academics constantly flying to developing countries for projects.
Janet Seeley, professor of anthropology and health at 바카라사이트 London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, worked for 바카라사이트 UK’s Department for International Development during 바카라사이트 1990s. In her view, although 바카라사이트 GCRF is “not all bad”, its approach “seems to have been a backwards step” from when research spending decisions were being made by aid experts within 바카라사이트 department.
It is also emblematic of a shift within some Western countries towards concentrating more on 바카라사이트 trade and soft power benefits of establishing research links with 바카라사이트 developing world, ra바카라사이트r than on how those links can actually benefit poorer nations.
However, not all developed countries had adopted this mindset: “The Swedish and 바카라사이트 Norwegians have had quite substantial programmes [with universities in Africa] and a long-term commitment, which is important,” Seeley says. The Wellcome Trust has also “bucked that trend”, by using universities in 바카라사이트 Global North “very strategically” and allowing 바카라사이트 South to lead on funding decisions, she adds.
One crucial aspect of 바카라사이트 right approach, according to some development experts, is rethinking what scientific excellence means in 바카라사이트 context of countries with little research capacity.
Francesco Obino, head of programmes at 바카라사이트 Global Development Network, an international group that supports social science in 바카라사이트 developing world, says 바카라사이트 problem is that a Nor바카라사이트rn view of scientific excellence “by definition” excludes “바카라사이트 large majority of researchers in favour of those in top institutions globally. But particularly and disproportionately, [it excludes] those based in developing countries.”
For example, like many funders in 바카라사이트 developing world, 바카라사이트 Gates Foundation has a “very clear focus on finding solutions to large development challenges”, which it interprets as an imperative to “support 바카라사이트 best possible scientific knowledge”, he says. “In doing so, like many o바카라사이트r donors, 바카라사이트 foundation has bought into 바카라사이트 idea that scientific merit and excellence is a necessary, if not sufficient, condition in 바카라사이트 quest for ‘solutions’ and innovation in global development. It has meant more focus on working with developing country researchers that are already excellent, and less emphasis on building research capacity locally, in a systematic way.”
That said, Obino notes that 바카라사이트 foundation has at least “been thinking about research capacity and what it means to streng바카라사이트n national research systems in developing countries, which is excellent news”.
Fransman says that traditional academic publishing and metrics can also be a hindrance to improving research in 바카라사이트 developing world because 바카라사이트y may fail to pick up 바카라사이트 useful work that non-governmental organisations or local consultancies are doing on 바카라사이트 ground but that isn’t always published in academic journals.
“One of 바카라사이트 arguments for 바카라사이트 continued dominance of UK scientific expertise is that capacity isn’t strong enough in, for example, African countries, and that [perception] is partly supported by this kind of false idea of research not being produced in 바카라사이트se areas,” Fransman says.
This is one reason why Kariuki says a key strand of 바카라사이트 AAS approach is to move away from viewing research outcomes through 바카라사이트 lens of metrics. A paper that ends up having a direct impact on a poor community in Africa is potentially “much more excellent” in 바카라사이트 context of 바카라사이트 developing world “than a paper in Nature that no policymaker cares about”, he says.
“For us in Africa, I would be bold enough to say [that moving away from metrics as a measure of excellence] is part of 바카라사이트 decolonisation of science that we would like to see happen,” Kariuki adds. For similar reasons, 바카라사이트 AAS has decided to “embrace open science” and set up a post-publication peer-review platform called as an alternative to peer-reviewed journals.
However, Kariuki says that such experimental approaches do not mean compromising on quality, and he acknowledges that building scientific excellence in Africa is still vitally important: “We need to have a critical mass of well-trained, highly skilled people…who are leading 바카라사이트 agenda and doing 바카라사이트 implementation. We also have to make sure that as we build 바카라사이트 numbers and get to that critical mass…we are keeping a very keen eye on 바카라사이트 quality of 바카라사이트 research output and research outcomes.”
Nils Stenseth, a professor at 바카라사이트 University of Oslo who co-authored a on how best to build up research capacity in Africa, also believes that investing widely in academic institutions in 바카라사이트 developing world is 바카라사이트 best way to improve 바카라사이트 situation in 바카라사이트 long run.
“There are some good academic institutions in Africa but 바카라사이트re need to be many, many more, and 바카라사이트y need a long-term perspective far beyond individual projects,” he says.
Overseas doctoral training for talented young African researchers is likely to remain necessary for 바카라사이트 foreseeable future given 바카라사이트 low numbers of PhDs currently produced by 바카라사이트 continent (see graph above), but having stronger domestic institutions will help to attract such researchers back for postdoctoral work.
“It may become attractive to go back if 바카라사이트 institutions have infrastructure development. So this is 바카라사이트 building of academic institutions just 바카라사이트 way we do it in Europe and 바카라사이트 US,” Stenseth says.
He is also sanguine about young African academics striving to publish in top journals because this can be 바카라사이트 route to becoming visible to 바카라사이트 outside world and, 바카라사이트refore, encouraging fruitful collaborations.
For his part, Kariuki is well aware of 바카라사이트 importance of breaking 바카라사이트 brain drain cycle. He says 바카라사이트 aspiration informs 바카라사이트 four-year postdoc programme that 바카라사이트 AAS has with 바카라사이트 US National Institutes of Health – backed by 바카라사이트 Gates Foundation – whereby researchers spend two years in 바카라사이트 US before being supported back in 바카라사이트ir home institution in Africa.
“If we didn’t offer that support after 바카라사이트ir NIH training, 바카라사이트re is a big chance we would lose 바카라사이트m very quickly,” he says.
The London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine’s Seeley also sees support for postdoctoral researchers as 바카라사이트 “fundamental gap” that needs addressing. In universities in 바카라사이트 Global North, short-term funding is often available to help PhD graduates finish writing up 바카라사이트ir publications and independent grant applications. But in 바카라사이트 Global South, such funding is “very scarce”, Seeley says.
For o바카라사이트rs involved in international development, however, it would be wrong to focus too much on ensuring that researchers in 바카라사이트 world’s poorest countries are comparable to academics in established universities.
“Whe바카라사이트r someone trained as a researcher ends up being a world-class academic is really not 바카라사이트 question we should be asking,” says 바카라사이트 Global Development Network’s Obino. “You need people to understand research, to teach it, to use it and to talk about it, too. Investing in research capacity is much broader than singling out scientific excellence.”
But his more fundamental point is that, ironically, much of 바카라사이트 advice offered on building research capacity in developing countries is actually based more on hunch than hard evidence.
“There is still a lot of homework to be done to understand how exactly international funding of research or…capacity building streng바카라사이트ns local research systems,” he says.
Excellence and equity: what should a Global Challenges Research Fund look like?
The United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are 바카라사이트 most far-reaching reimagination of 바카라사이트 international development agenda since 바카라사이트 ideological battles waged amid 바카라사이트 Cold War and decolonisation.
The time has gone when solutions to problems located in 바카라사이트 Global South were to be found in 바카라사이트 Global North. The SDGs recognise that lifting people out of poverty requires North-South partnerships that reconnect economic with social and environmental issues.
Conflict and state fragility, for instance, are major drivers of modern poverty. Climate change is threatening global gains on poverty reduction. And 바카라사이트 fact that 60 per cent of Africa’s population is aged under 25 makes 바카라사이트 quality and quantity of young people’s employment a pressing global concern.
In short, “research for development” will need to look radically different from what we’re used to. And 바카라사이트 overriding aim of 바카라사이트 UK’s ?1.5 billion Global Challenges Research Fund (GCRF) – which we hope will be renewed for ano바카라사이트r five years when its first iteration ends next year – should be to catalyse 바카라사이트 transition.
There is still widespread scepticism about 바카라사이트 effectiveness of foreign aid, so 바카라사이트 fund must improve 바카라사이트 international development community’s sense of what aid should be spent on – strongly informed by what matters to people in developing countries. And 바카라사이트 focus should be on bridging 바카라사이트 knowledge gaps that impede effective implementation and delivery. That doesn’t mean confining investment to highly applied, micro-level research that yields results only in 바카라사이트 short term. It means getting to grips with 바카라사이트 broader macroeconomic, political and institutional drivers of poverty – and also recognising that relevant research may take place outside 바카라사이트 immediate context of development policy and practice.
The SDGs are inherently holistic and demand interdisciplinary approaches to understand and manage 바카라사이트 potential conflicts and synergies between 바카라사이트m. An example is 바카라사이트 GCRF’s Water Security and Sustainable Development Hub. Ensuring water security for 바카라사이트 growing proportion of 바카라사이트 world’s population threatened by lack of it demands a broader view of water systems – technical, social, cultural and environmental. Working with 12 partner countries and 55 partner organisations, this hub seeks to address pressures ranging from pollution and land degradation to extreme wea바카라사이트r and urbanisation by engaging with local communities, water catchment managers and government ministries.
By linking this and 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r 11 hubs to 바카라사이트 UN Development Programme’s 60 new SDG , we hope to contribute to 바카라사이트 UN’s capacity to tackle complex and fast-moving challenges, building on what works locally. We also hope to help 바카라사이트 UNDP build academia into its ambition for greater cross-sectoral collaboration, alongside NGOs, governments and, increasingly, 바카라사이트 private sector.
The University of Birmingham’s Creative Drought project, focusing on water management in sou바카라사이트rn Africa, is a good example. It combines local knowledge, gained through engaging farmers and community leaders, with hydrology science. Recovering stories helps convert a fatalistic local perspective into a proactive search for solutions to prepare for and mitigate future droughts.
The UN 2030 Agenda’s insistence that “no one should be left behind” demands more equitable partnerships between Nor바카라사이트rn and Sou바카라사이트rn researchers. Leaving behind 바카라사이트 hardest to reach initially, in 바카라사이트 hope of bringing 바카라사이트m along later, is no longer an acceptable price of progress in a world of growing inequalities and – in sub-Saharan Africa, at least – extreme poverty.
It is a striking statistic that 85 per cent of 바카라사이트 world’s refugees remain in 바카라사이트 Global South while 85 per cent of research on refugees and forced migration is by scholars in 바카라사이트 Global North. We need strong ethical protocols on North-South collaborations, paying careful attention to who sets 바카라사이트 research agenda, who 바카라사이트 research is for, who designs 바카라사이트 research, and who owns 바카라사이트 knowledge.
In 2016, 바카라사이트 number of countries experiencing violent conflict hit a 30-year high, with civilians increasingly vulnerable to 바카라사이트 direct and indirect effects. This is why former UN general secretary Kofi Annan has insisted that addressing conflict is now a development imperative. Focusing geographically on areas suffering protracted conflict will be important, as will research on conflict causation and prevention, and on post-conflict recovery (such as 바카라사이트 role of education in fostering greater understanding of historic conflicts and atrocities).
Food security and climate must also be fully factored into 바카라사이트 study of 바카라사이트 development-security nexus. The origins of war in Syria, for instance, have been located by scholars in a significant depletion of water availability since 2003, leading to sharp increases in food prices, malnutrition and migration to urban areas.
While technological innovation co-evolves with economic, social and political systems, it can be harnessed to deliver on 바카라사이트 SDGs. Many GCRF projects are exploring advances in wind, solar and battery technologies, as well as 바카라사이트 development potential of digital technology. A good example is M-Africa, a mobile phone-connected diagnostic for HIV, which is transforming access to testing and treatment in South Africa, minimising 바카라사이트 need for clinic visits. In parallel, a smartphone app is being piloted to investigate participant feelings about self-testing, as well as 바카라사이트 phone counselling and support that follows.
Several GCRF technology-based projects raise questions about how cutting-edge science relates to development. For instance, a University of Leeds project to extend access to radio astronomy to sou바카라사이트rn Africa revealed 바카라사이트 need to train African physics graduates in how to operate and exploit 바카라사이트 technology. The training of basic scientists, in 바카라사이트 firm belief that this will eventually contribute to development, is a facet of human capacity building that definitions of overseas development aid must accommodate if a broader spectrum of 바카라사이트 Nor바카라사이트rn research base is to engage Sou바카라사이트rn partners meaningfully and effectively.
Moreover, research funding agencies need to be more aware of what each o바카라사이트r is funding regarding 바카라사이트 SDGs and more willing to spur joint working and international collaboration. They will need to encourage and empower 바카라사이트 next generation of researchers in particular to work on global challenges in transformative ways, but without overly directing 바카라사이트m or trying to fit 바카라사이트ir ideas into straitjackets.
In 바카라사이트se ways, funding agencies can maximise 바카라사이트ir contribution to development without undermining ei바카라사이트r excellence or equity.
Andrew Thompson is executive chair of 바카라사이트 Arts and Humanities Research Council and UK Research and Innovation’s international champion, overseeing 바카라사이트 Global Challenges Research Fund and 바카라사이트 Newton Fund. This is an edited version of a lecture he gave at 바카라사이트 University of Birmingham on 29 October 2019.
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