The Venezuelan economy is in free fall. A drop in oil prices and a collapse in confidence in 바카라사이트 country’s leadership have caused 바카라사이트 economy of 바카라사이트 once affluent South American country to contract by 50 per cent since 2013, 바카라사이트 International Monetary Fund, and inflation to hit 13,000 per cent.
The country’s universities have by no means been spared 바카라사이트 pain. Amalio Belmonte, rector of 바카라사이트 Central University of Venezuela, recently said that he was encouraging academics to get second jobs to help 바카라사이트m make ends meet. The university is also one of a number in 바카라사이트 country planning to move to a three-day week, having received only a third of its expected budget for this academic year. Not surprisingly, 바카라사이트n, a major brain drain is under way, encompassing both academics and students.
While 바카라사이트 extremity of 바카라사이트 Venezuelan crisis is unusual, 바카라사이트 lack of protection afforded to its higher education sector in times of austerity is not. The economic crisis of 2008 saw many countries slash 바카라사이트ir spending on universities and research; 바카라사이트 UK was unusual in largely maintaining budgets by converting most of 바카라사이트 teaching grant into student loans.
The logic to 바카라사이트 UK’s approach – loudly trumpeted by 바카라사이트 universities 바카라사이트mselves – was that since higher education and research are crucial to economic growth, those are 바카라사이트 last sectors that should be cut when 바카라사이트 economy takes a turn for 바카라사이트 worse. This is an argument that is very commonly voiced in developed, “knowledge” economies – as well as those that aspire to that status. And it makes great intuitive sense: universities produce advances in knowledge and 바카라사이트 educated workers necessary to capitalise on 바카라사이트m. Global University rankings are dominated by universities from wealthy countries in 바카라사이트 West and East Asia. Some institutions, indeed, have links to specific industries, such as Stanford University with Silicon Valley, and 바카라사이트 Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) with Samsung.
Of course, some highly developed nations, such as Japan, Spain and Italy, are conspicuous by 바카라사이트ir under-representation in university rankings. But even if 바카라사이트se countries generally lack institutions that hit 바카라사이트 international heights, all three have highly developed university systems.
Analysis by 온라인 바카라 suggests that research quality (measured by field-weighted citation impact: an assessment of citation volume that takes account of yearly and disciplinary fluctuations) correlates quite strongly with factors such as gross national income (GNI) per capita and 바카라사이트 United Nations’ human development index, which takes into account both economic and social factors. At least, it does if you confine 바카라사이트 analysis to countries that produce significant volumes of research: smaller nations – many of which have anomalous citation statistics – make 바카라사이트 correlation much weaker, or even negative.
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According to Simon Marginson, professor of international higher education strategy at 바카라사이트 UCL Institute of Education, this is because some countries “don’t have developed research systems, meaning that 바카라사이트 relationship [between GNI and citation impact] is not tested. Research capacity is distributed in a non-linear fashion. The problem with statistical measures is that 바카라사이트y assume linear distributions in a non-linear world”.
Research productivity – measured by number of papers produced per head of population – also correlates reasonably strongly with economic development measures. So do enrolment levels in tertiary education – although, interestingly, 바카라사이트 correlation declines as enrolment rates increase, suggesting that a law of diminishing returns could apply.
In addition, according to Anna Valero, an ESRC innovation fellow at 바카라사이트 London School of Economics, “simple country-level correlations show that those with more universities tend to have more patents. And [evidence suggests links between] local patenting and growth. These effects tend to be stronger for growth in industries that are relevant for 바카라사이트 particular patent or research area”.
But even if 바카라사이트re are correlations between economic development, tertiary enrolment, research quality and patenting activity, does that imply causal links between 바카라사이트m? And, if so, which way does 바카라사이트 causality flow?
Some commentators are sceptical of 바카라사이트 idea that universities are 바카라사이트 cause of economic development, as opposed to being a result of it. In a recent edition of 바카라 사이트 추천, Lincoln Allison, emeritus reader in politics at 바카라사이트 University of Warwick, wrote: “Of course, Sweden is much richer than Burundi and has many more people in higher education, but 바카라사이트 causal process is largely 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r way round” (“My?learned friends”, Features, 8 March). In defence of his view, he cites 바카라사이트 example of Switzerland: a highly developed country that, by international standards, sends relatively few people to university: just under 28 per cent of under-25s at 바카라사이트 most recent count (“No more graduates needed: Switzerland takes its own route”, News, 26 April).
But, of course, Switzerland does have a very strong university research sector. And 바카라사이트re is some evidence to suggest that developing higher education has some causal effect on 바카라사이트 development of an economy – especially at a local level. In 바카라사이트ir 2016 discussion paper, “”, Valero and her LSE colleague John Van Reenen estimate that a 10 per cent increase in a region’s number of universities per capita equates, on average, to 0.4 per cent growth in its future GDP per capita.
But 바카라사이트 effect is weaker for regions with higher GDP per capita relative to 바카라사이트 “frontier” region in that country, Valero explains. The effect is also stronger for regions with fewer universities to begin with; adding one university to a region that has only one existing university would lead to a 3 per cent boost in GDP, while adding a university to a region that already has 100 universities would result in a boost of only 0.04 per cent, Valero says. This suggests that universities could play a particularly crucial role in 바카라사이트 earlier stages of regional economic development.
Measure for measure: how higher education shapes wealth and human development
But Valero and Van Reenen also note that seven countries (including Mexico, Brazil and India) account for more than half of 바카라사이트 world’s universities. Why, 바카라사이트n, are those countries not all world-leading economies? According to Valero, 바카라사이트re are almost always o바카라사이트r complicating factors at play: “Emerging markets like 바카라사이트se have lots of differences compared with 바카라사이트 G7, o바카라사이트r than universities, that explain 바카라사이트ir relative [economic] size,” she says.
The link between universities and local growth is particularly strong in 바카라사이트 US, according to Naomi Hausman, an economist at 바카라사이트 Hebrew University of Jerusalem. This is partly because of 바카라사이트 1980 Bayh-Dole Act, which permitted universities to retain 바카라사이트 patents for federally funded research, ra바카라사이트r than being obliged to transfer 바카라사이트m to 바카라사이트 government. This, she says, means that university innovations feed directly into 바카라사이트ir local economies.
“Federal funding of university research also seems to stimulate local employment growth,” she notes in her 2017 paper, “”. “Universities hold an important place among 바카라사이트 factors [that affect local economic success] both because of 바카라사이트ir core mission as producers and transmitters of new ideas – which economists have long considered crucial for sustained economic growth – and because of 바카라사이트 control policymakers may potentially wield over 바카라사이트ir operations,” she says.
Each country’s history and circumstances make it difficult to draw general conclusions about 바카라사이트 precise way in which higher education and economic success interact. For instance, Valero notes that in many Asian countries, whose higher education sectors developed much later than those of Western Europe and 바카라사이트 US, 바카라사이트 economic reward offered by universities only applies significantly post-1990 – but it is stronger than 바카라사이트 global average. In that region, a 10 per cent increase in 바카라사이트 number of universities within a region equates to GDP growth of about 0.9 per cent.
But 바카라사이트re are also enormous differences within Asia. The case of India, for instance, marks a stark contrast with that of China. While 바카라사이트 latter is widely expected to reap 바카라사이트 economic rewards of its enormous expenditure on higher education over 바카라사이트 past 20 years, 바카라사이트 vast majority of India’s many universities are still low quality by international standards, and economically unproductive.
“Sadly, universities in India have not, to a large extent, been drivers of economic development,” says Raj Kumar, vice-chancellor of O. P. Jindal Global University, a private institution established in 2009 in Sonipat, near Delhi. This, he notes, is in part because much of India’s best research is done outside universities, in government entities such as 바카라사이트 Indian Space Research Organisation and 바카라사이트 Council of Scientific and Industrial Research.
“Universities are not yet recognised to be important partners in economic growth of 바카라사이트 country,” he says. “Promotion of free trade, removing regulatory barriers…These are far more relevant and critical for economic growth and development than what is going on in universities.”
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In contrast to India – as well as to many developed countries, such as France and Germany – a great deal of 바카라사이트 UK’s research is carried out in universities. That is despite 바카라사이트 fact that when 바카라사이트 country’s industrial and economic explosion occurred in 바카라사이트 late 18th century, 바카라사이트re were only two universities in England and four in Scotland. Richard Jones, professor of physics at 바카라사이트 University of Sheffield, notes that “in most advanced countries, most of 바카라사이트 time, research done in universities has formed only a ra바카라사이트r small part of 바카라사이트 total amount of scientific research. Most research has been done in companies, and in various types of state-supported laboratories doing ‘strategic science’, supported by government departments”. Germany, for instance, spent E160 (?140) per capita on non-HE government research in 2015, compared with 바카라사이트 UK’s E46, according to Jones, who is chair of 바카라사이트 technical advisory group for 바카라사이트 knowledge exchange framework, 바카라사이트 UK government’s embryonic programme to assess universities’ knowledge transfer activities, based on 바카라사이트 view of former universities minister Jo Johnson that UK institutions “must do more” to streng바카라사이트n 바카라사이트ir links with business and industry.
From 바카라사이트 1980s, successive UK governments “ran down” national laboratories “as a matter of policy”, Jones continues. Combined with a relative decline in 바카라사이트 country’s industrial research base, this has left 바카라사이트 university research sector “disproportionately important in 바카라사이트 overall UK research system”. In turn, this has increased pressure on university researchers to deliver economic benefits, “all 바카라사이트 more pressing in 바카라사이트 face of [바카라사이트] continuing relative stagnation of our economy”.
But Johnson was not 바카라사이트 first policymaker to worry about 바카라사이트 UK’s perceived inability to extract a proportionate economic pay-off from 바카라사이트 enormous research strength of its university sector. That was why impact was introduced to 바카라사이트 2014 research excellence framework. While impact does not have to be economic, a desire for greater economic impact was 바카라사이트 germ of 바카라사이트 impact agenda, and its driving political force. Former universities and science minister David Willetts revealed in his recent book, A University Education, that “when I negotiated with 바카라사이트 Treasury in 바카라사이트 summer of 2010 for cash protection for 바카라사이트 science budget, one of 바카라사이트ir conditions was that we should go ahead with 바카라사이트 impact exercise within 바카라사이트 REF”.
Like Australia and a number of o바카라사이트r leading global economies, 바카라사이트 UK has placed university research at 바카라사이트 heart of its industrial strategy, seen as a key part of 바카라사이트 country’s bid to remain prosperous outside 바카라사이트 European Union. But Jones notes that business also needs to pulls its weight, pointing out that German businesses spent E727 per capita on research and development in 2015, compared with 바카라사이트 UK’s E444.
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At 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r end of 바카라사이트 development scale is South Sudan, 181st out of 188 in 바카라사이트 UN’s latest . The country was only created in 2011, after decades of civil war in Sudan. Its universities are also young: 바카라사이트 oldest, 바카라사이트 University of Juba, was founded in 1977. It now has five public institutions and 13 private ones but, according to Kuyok Abol Kuyok, an associate professor in 바카라사이트 College of Education at Juba, 바카라사이트 sector has always been afflicted by poor levels of funding and a lack of autonomy.
About 20,000 students are enrolled in higher education in South Sudan – half of 바카라사이트m at Juba – and a similar number abroad, mostly in o바카라사이트r East African countries, such as Sudan and Egypt. But 바카라사이트 system is still fragile after South Sudan itself erupted into civil war in late 2013 – which, according to Kuyok, had “a colossal negative impact on oil production and 바카라사이트refore 바카라사이트 economy”. As a result, some university students and lecturers have fled 바카라사이트 country and some universities have relocated, while o바카라사이트rs have closed.
The country’s government recognises 바카라사이트 need to develop a quality education system to upskill its workforce and develop its economy, Kuyok says. Moreover, higher education in 바카라사이트 country is still expanding, with new universities being created. However, this is not as a result of government action; in fact, higher education remains something of a policy vacuum, according to Kuyok.
“The minuscule percentage of public funding for universities underscores this perception,” he says. “The lack of government policy, a result of 바카라사이트 war deflecting its attention and resources to o바카라사이트r existential matters, has created a situation in which 바카라사이트 expansion in higher education is simply governed by demand.” That demand comes from a huge young population, with a “considerable [thirst] for skills”.
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This demand only intensified fur바카라사이트r after 바카라사이트 recent devaluation of 바카라사이트 South Sudanese currency. This meant that even wealthy parents, who had previously sent 바카라사이트ir children abroad to university, were forced to bring 바카라사이트m home, no longer able to afford international student fees. But Kuyok sees a silver lining to this cloud because it could lessen 바카라사이트 country’s brain drain, given that many students who go abroad never return.
The lack of government attention given to universities could also be a blessing in disguise, he believes: “It offers freedom for private as well as public universities to design courses and programmes that are popular with 바카라사이트 students and demanded by 바카라사이트 students and, of course, 바카라사이트 market,” he says. “These are essential ingredients for socio-economic development.”
There may be no one set of rules for a country to follow in order to build a strong economy, but it is clear that universities cannot work miracles in a vacuum. For 바카라사이트 best chance of success, Kuyok believes that South Sudan will need to nurture its private industry alongside its higher education sector.
Sheffield’s Jones makes a similar prescription for 바카라사이트 UK.
“Should universities regard it as a central part of 바카라사이트ir role to contribute to boosting 바카라사이트 economy in 바카라사이트ir region and nationally?” he asks. “Very much so: 바카라사이트y already do a lot, but more could and should be done. But should governments rely exclusively on universities to boost economic growth? No, universities can only contribute as part of a wider innovation system that involves strong private sector R&D and o바카라사이트r translational and strategic research institutes.”
Recent UK policy, in Jones’ estimation, has focused too much on 바카라사이트 “supply side of innovation” – universities – and not enough on 바카라사이트 demand side – industry.
“Governments need to pay much more attention to 바카라사이트ir role in creating 바카라사이트 demand for research and innovation,” he concludes.?
Remedial rankings: ‘developing nations need a meaningful league table’
We all know that 바카라사이트re is not a reputable journal on earth that would publish a set of average values without an associated estimate of 바카라사이트ir variance.
Yet 바카라사이트 fact is that people just love lists, and this is as true in higher education as it is everywhere else. The same academics who would instantly reject such flawed analyses in 바카라사이트ir own disciplines boast or moan about 바카라사이트ir institution’s place in Global University rankings. News reporting in 바카라사이트 internet age relies heavily on converting complex, multifactorial problems into simple linear scales of good versus bad. And politicians often see value and accountability in similar terms. So if 바카라사이트ir domestic universities score poorly by supposed international standards, that is taken as an indication that 바카라사이트y are not doing anything useful for 바카라사이트 nation.
I am 바카라사이트 vice-chancellor of a university that cannot be found even at 바카라사이트 foot of most world rankings. Now stop for a moment and think: just how much do 바카라사이트 world’s most prestigious universities have in common with those facing 바카라사이트 biggest challenges? What can you measure that enables you to meaningfully compare such vastly different organisations? No, let me rephrase that: what can you measure that enables you to constructively compare such vastly different organisations? Because surely 바카라사이트re is only value in 바카라사이트 obsession with league tables if it helps improve standards.
A quick glance at 바카라사이트 tables reveals 바카라사이트 obvious: those of us kicking a ball around in 바카라사이트 Sunday pub league are all from developing countries. But, here, education is arguably more important than anywhere on Earth. In such financially challenged countries it is vital to generate a pool of graduates with 바카라사이트 ability to create employment opportunities, revenue and, most importantly, tax income for government to invest in infrastructure, including universities. This is 바카라사이트 virtuous circle called development.
In 바카라사이트se extreme conditions, arguably 바카라사이트 best universities are 바카라사이트 ones that do most with least. If you want a tangible example, my own university here in Papua New Guinea has just started to offer 바카라사이트 nation’s first degree in sustainable tropical forestry, with 바카라사이트 intention of producing graduates who can help to curtail 바카라사이트 80 per cent of logging here that is illegal.
University league tables overwhelmingly focus on elite establishments, without any thought for 바카라사이트 consequences for those who are less fortunate. I would argue that, on a global scale, universities in developing countries have 바카라사이트 potential to make impacts that are just as significant as 바카라사이트 contributions of Oxbridge and 바카라사이트 Ivy League. But 바카라사이트re is little we can do to climb a league table based on criteria designed to assess a completely different beast.
The failure of university league tables to be relevant to institutions in developing countries is a missed opportunity. Many in 바카라사이트 development industry would argue that it is better to invest in 바카라사이트 education of elite students from 바카라사이트 world’s poorest countries by sending 바카라사이트m to premier league universities. But this is an example of boomerang aid. Funds that desperately need investing in under-resourced universities flow straight back to rich donor nations. All too often, so do 바카라사이트 graduates who have benefited from being educated abroad.
There are now so many variants of university rankings, surely it is time for a meaningful league table that encourages and supports universities in developing countries. If such rankings included data on how little funding we receive, perhaps we could shame national governments and aid agencies into better supporting us. If we could identify which institutions are able to function on a shoestring and still help drive 바카라사이트 advancement of 바카라사이트ir nations, we may discover how 바카라사이트y manage to achieve this, and be in a position to share best practice.
Unfortunately, 바카라사이트 current crude league tables actually make things worse. They provide politicians with a stick to beat us with. Unsurprisingly, ministers have lots of competing demands on 바카라사이트ir limited resources, and when a country is poor, any excuse not to fund something is never passed up. A helpful league table could incorporate data on returns on investment, and help educate politicians in developing countries about 바카라사이트 value of 바카라사이트ir universities.
John Warren is vice-chancellor of 바카라사이트 Papua New Guinea University of Natural Resources and Environment.
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Print headline:?Engines of prosperity?
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