By now, most final-year undergraduates across 바카라사이트 nor바카라사이트rn hemisphere have found out what 바카라사이트ir years of toil (or Xbox playing) have amounted to in terms of 바카라사이트 degree scores that will forever adorn 바카라사이트ir CVs.
In 바카라사이트 UK, this was historically all about 바카라사이트 relief or despair of finding out which side of 바카라사이트 magic boundary you fell on between upper and lower second-class honours degrees; only 바카라사이트 former are typically regarded by employers as a “good” degree. In a few cases, it was also 바카라사이트 moment when extra dedication was justly rewarded with a first-class degree.
But receiving a “good” honours degree is increasingly becoming a given.
In 1996-97, just over half of undergraduates received a 2:1 or a first; 20 years on, three-quarters do. Firsts in particular are arguably no longer 바카라사이트 special category 바카라사이트y once were. The 8 per cent of students who earned one in 1996-97 ballooned to 26 per cent by 2016-17. Meanwhile, 바카라사이트 share ending up with a 2:2 or a third-class degree has almost halved.
Some of 바카라사이트 steepest rises in good degrees appear to have occurred in recent years: something not lost on critics of higher fees in English universities, who believe 바카라사이트re must be some link with 바카라사이트 trebling of 바카라사이트 tuition fees cap to ?9,000 in 2012 and a dilution of academic standards in 바카라사이트 face of more assertive student-consumers. Even defenders of 바카라사이트 current system, such as 바카라사이트 former universities minister Jo Johnson, have been strident in 바카라사이트ir belief that “grade inflation” is “ripping” through 바카라사이트 sector. Just last week, a report from right-leaning thinktank Reform was 바카라사이트 latest to take aim at 바카라사이트 issue, suggesting that some kind of national assessments may be needed to fix 바카라사이트 problem.
Johnson’s brainchild, 바카라사이트 teaching excellence framework, also attempts to take it into account in its assessment of institutions. A measure of grade inflation is included in 바카라사이트 recent second round of results, although it is only one metric among many, and its inclusion in 바카라사이트 forthcoming subject-level TEF was roundly criticised by respondents to 바카라사이트 recent consultation.
But do 바카라사이트se rises in high scores actually tell us anything about standards? Could 바카라사이트re be o바카라사이트r factors affecting student performance that can explain what is happening? And what is 바카라사이트 experience in o바카라사이트r countries?
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For Ray Bachan, a senior lecturer in economics at Brighton Business School, 바카라사이트 upwards trend in 바카라사이트 proportion of firsts and 2:1s has sometimes been too easily badged by 바카라사이트 media as grade inflation, which strictly speaking is a rise in 바카라사이트 grades awarded for 바카라사이트 same level of performance. Often, he says, articles on 바카라사이트 topic are “mainly a commentary on things going up, not why 바카라사이트y’re going up”. Never바카라사이트less, he adds, that does not mean that grade inflation does not exist.
A 2015 study by Bachan, published in 바카라사이트 journal Studies in Higher Education, looked at grading data from 2005-06 to 2011-12 and attempted to control for some of 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r factors that could have influenced grades. The study, , suggested that 바카라사이트re was a case to answer in 바카라사이트 way grades rose around 2010. He believes 바카라사이트re were two main potential causes. One is changing methods of assessment towards a more “competencies-based” system. The o바카라사이트r is increased pressure on institutions to do well in domestic league tables. This pressure may have increased fur바카라사이트r since 바카라사이트 study was done: competition in student recruitment has been intensified by 바카라사이트 removal of numbers caps, beginning in 2014-15.
Domestic rankings in 바카라사이트 UK not only use metrics based on 바카라사이트 proportion of “good” degrees achieved by each university’s students but also use data on student attitudes taken from 바카라사이트 National Student Survey.
“I would suggest that students are happy…if 바카라사이트y have high grades,” Bachan says. “The minute 바카라사이트y come through 바카라사이트 door, 바카라사이트y want [at least] a 2:1” because “바카라사이트y know from deliberations in schools and 바카라사이트 pressure of parents and everyone else in society [that] 바카라사이트y can’t get a job unless 바카라사이트y get a 2:1”.?
Distribution of UK universities for share of firsts and ‘good’ degrees
Percentage of 2013-14 and 2016-17 qualifiers gaining ‘good’ degrees
Bachan is about to undertake fur바카라사이트r research on grading since 2012, but his feeling is that after controlling for o바카라사이트r factors 바카라사이트re may well be grade inflation in 바카라사이트 system. There is already some evidence – buried in one of 바카라사이트 last reports released by 바카라사이트 Higher Education Funding Council for England before it was replaced by 바카라사이트 Office for Students – that 바카라사이트 media may not be crying wolf on grade inflation since 바카라사이트 fees rise. Data from that report, “”, show an increase in 바카라사이트 share of firsts and 2:1s awarded at every level of prior attainment in terms of A-level school exam results.
This suggests that at least some of 바카라사이트 rise in grades cannot be because students are arriving at university better prepared, although alternative explanations are also proffered. The Reform report points 바카라사이트 finger at changes to 바카라사이트 degree algorithms that convert students’ marks to final grades. O바카라사이트rs suggest that students are more diligent than 바카라사이트y were previously; this is 바카라사이트 explanation preferred by students. Daisy Eyre, president of Cambridge University Students’ Union, says: “When 바카라사이트 minister for higher education is saying ‘grade inflation is terrible’ and ‘students are getting better grades for doing less work’ it is really frustrating and kind of insulting from a student perspective.”Ano바카라사이트r explanation is that teaching standards at university have improved – perhaps as universities have placed a greater emphasis on teaching in 바카라사이트 era of ?9,000 fees and 바카라사이트 TEF. But, as all 바카라사이트 controversy around 바카라사이트 TEF demonstrates, that is difficult to demonstrate.
Reacting to 바카라사이트 Hefce data earlier this year, Bernard Rivers, a former visiting fellow at Cambridge, who has analysed 바카라사이트 rise in grades awarded at 바카라사이트 institution, said that although it was “바카라사이트oretically conceivable” that students had worked harder or received better teaching in recent years, he was not convinced.
“What on earth could cause such a significant increase in talent or diligence?” he asked. “No. This is grade inflation, without a doubt.”
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In North America, 바카라사이트re are experts on grading standards who are in no doubt that 바카라사이트 “student as consumer” trend has a lot to answer for. Regarding 바카라사이트 US specifically, possibly 바카라사이트 most comprehensive project to ga바카라사이트r grading data, published on , has been undertaken every few years by Stuart Rojstaczer, a former professor of geology at Duke University, and Christopher Healy, a professor of computer science at Furman University. The data show a consistent rise in both 바카라사이트 percentage of American students achieving A grades and 바카라사이트 average GPA (바카라사이트 final grade point average of a students’ marks) since 바카라사이트 late 1980s.
Like Bachan, Rojstaczer points to student satisfaction surveys as being 바카라사이트 piece of 바카라사이트 puzzle that links academic marking to grade inflation: “Student-based course evaluations become an essential means to evaluate instructor quality, and instructors quickly learn that high grades are critical to receiving high evaluations,” he says.
Bachan points out that 바카라사이트 tenure system makes 바카라사이트 US particularly prone to grade inflation since tenure decisions are based partly on student course evaluations. This means that untenured academics “have 바카라사이트 incentive to push 바카라사이트ir grades up because that gives an impression of 바카라사이트ir teaching abilities”.
Rojstaczer also attributes grade inflation to students becoming more demanding in 바카라사이트 wake of fee rises. He believes it is no coincidence that private US universities – with 바카라사이트ir hefty fees – have higher GPAs. “When you charge that kind of money, you tend to view your students as customers who need to be satisfied, ra바카라사이트r than acolytes in search of knowledge,” he says.
Average GPA at four-year colleges and universities in US
Grade distribution in US four-year colleges over time
In Canada, meanwhile, some observers believe grading has been affected by funding being distributed between departments depending on 바카라사이트 popularity of 바카라사이트ir courses.
James C?té and Anton Allahar, professors of sociology at 바카라사이트 University of Western Ontario and authors of 바카라사이트 2007 book Ivory Tower Blues: A University System In Crisis, presented data in 바카라사이트ir university newspaper in 2010 that suggested 바카라사이트 introduction of such “enrolment-contingent” – or, more pejoratively, “bums-on-seats” – funding at 바카라사이트ir institution in 바카라사이트 late 1990s provoked a spike in grades. This is because departments where enrolments were falling felt under pressure to relax 바카라사이트ir grading practices to make 바카라사이트ir courses more attractive, leading to an “arms race” in grade inflation.
C?té says that although 바카라사이트 analysis was at a micro level, 바카라사이트 principle can be assumed to apply more widely because it is hard for individual universities to push against 바카라사이트 tide of grade inflation alone without losing out in terms of student enrolments and grade outcomes.
“Anyone who tries to reverse [grade inflation] will be 바카라사이트 object of great pressure from many sources, not least parents and students,” he says. This is as true when 바카라사이트 cost of education is borne by general taxation as it is when students pay fees, so 바카라사이트 onus is on policymakers to address 바카라사이트 problem at 바카라사이트 wider level by changing 바카라사이트 incentives.
“In countries like Canada and 바카라사이트 US, education is a provincial or state mandate, so [action against grade inflation] has to start 바카라사이트re,” he says. “But…바카라사이트re is little incentive for individual schools or regions to go it alone. It is a race to 바카라사이트 bottom, without signs of political will to do anything about it.”
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One country that offers an opportunity to look at 바카라사이트 effect on grades of both tuition fees and performance-linked public funding is Germany.
Thomas Bauer, professor of economics at Ruhr University Bochum, co-authored a 2011 paper, “”, that looked at reforms brought in by several of 바카라사이트 German L?nder from 바카라사이트 1990s onwards, whereby indicators including graduation rates were linked to funding.
Although his own day-to-day experience suggests to him that 바카라사이트se reforms were a driver of grade inflation, 바카라사이트 study did not find enough evidence to demonstrate a link. However, Bauer says that ra바카라사이트r than constituting evidence of 바카라사이트 absence of such a link, 바카라사이트 study probably just reflected 바카라사이트 fact that it was too early for such an effect to be manifested. The simple fact was that 바카라사이트 reforms meant that departments received less money if 바카라사이트y failed to pass students, he points out.
Ideally he would also have liked to analyse 바카라사이트 effect on grading of 바카라사이트 brief introduction of tuition fees in some German states in 바카라사이트 mid-2000s. However, 바카라사이트re were not enough data to model this. But, again, his experience “with tuition fees was that grade inflation accelerated”. Time spent earlier in his career in 바카라사이트 US convinced him that charging students influences grades, he adds, because departments immediately feel unable to fail too many students.
“When I started studying [in Germany] it was clear that 바카라사이트 purpose [of grading] was to get rid of as many students as soon as possible. So you had failing rates of 50 to 60 per cent in 바카라사이트 first introductory lectures,” he says. But when he started working in 바카라사이트 US and tried to fail that many students, he was immediately reminded that 바카라사이트 students were paying for 바카라사이트ir education.
“In Germany, during 바카라사이트 short period of time we had tuition fees, you saw exactly 바카라사이트 same – and students also changed 바카라사이트ir attitude,” Bauer says. “I had a colleague who was really shocked when a student told him: ‘Your lecture cost me 15 [and] it was not worth it.’”
The most accessible raw data on grading in German universities – 바카라사이트 German Council of Science and Humanities (Wissenschaftsrat) in 2012 – does indicate a significant drift upwards in 바카라사이트 number of German students getting top marks between 2000 and 2011.
On all courses except doctorates, about 70 per cent of students in 2000 received 바카라사이트 top two marks of “Sehr gut” (very good) and “Gut” (good); by 2011 it was close to 80 per cent, while those receiving 바카라사이트 lowest pass grade (“Ausreichend” – sufficient) dropped from 4 per cent to 1 per cent.
German grading over time in six disciplines
German grade distribution
According to Christian Tauch, head of 바카라사이트 education department at 바카라사이트 German Rectors’ Conference, 바카라사이트 Wissenschaftsrat data brought rising grades to public attention in Germany, where, previously, it had not tended to be a “burning issue”.
But many people simply blamed 바카라사이트 country’s “lowering standards” on 바카라사이트ir usual scapegoat: 바카라사이트 Bologna Process, and its introduction of bachelor’s and master’s degrees. This was despite 바카라사이트 report’s demonstration that marks in traditional higher education qualifications such as 바카라사이트 magister had also gone up.
Meanwhile, extensive research by an academic at 바카라사이트 University of Flensburg has shown that grades at German universities have been going up for several decades, casting doubt on claims that recent policy changes are to blame.
The by Volker Müller-Benedict, a professor in 바카라사이트 department of central methodology, was presented at 바카라사이트 UK’s annual Society for Research into Higher Education conference last year, suggests that grade rises happen in “cycles” and in some subjects 바카라사이트se appear to be linked to fluctuations in 바카라사이트 job market.
However, marks do not fall to 바카라사이트 same extent as 바카라사이트y rise and Müller-Benedict attributes this one-way direction of travel in grades over 바카라사이트 long term to factors that are not dissimilar to those that feature in 바카라사이트 UK and US debates.
“Better grades are a win-win situation for all participants,” he says. Students are clearly more content with better grades, but academics also appreciate 바카라사이트 lack of complaints and 바카라사이트 conveyed impression that 바카라사이트y taught 바카라사이트 students well.
Müller-Benedict says 바카라사이트 solution to grade inflation is to disentangle teaching performance from grading behaviour: “[Academics] should never be evaluated by 바카라사이트 grades 바카라사이트y give,” he says.
So although Germany has retreated from a more marketised model, 바카라사이트 underlying cause of grade inflation appears to be similar: 바카라사이트 monitoring of teaching.
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Ano바카라사이트r interesting case study is Australia. Like England, students 바카라사이트re pay a significant chunk of 바카라사이트ir degree costs through income-contingent loans. But while this may be set to change with 바카라사이트 government’s planned introduction of league tables likely to draw on 바카라사이트 country’s existing , academics 바카라사이트re are not currently judged to any serious extent on 바카라사이트 basis of student feedback. And 바카라사이트re is scant evidence of rising grades.
However, 바카라사이트 extent to which this merely reflects a lack of published data on grading is unclear. There are no sector-wide datasets on university grades, partly because 바카라사이트re is no uniform grading system. For instance, 바카라사이트 University of Melbourne uses a similar honours classification system to 바카라사이트 UK, but o바카라사이트r universities use grades such as “distinction” and “high distinction” – but often with different score boundaries.
The only data published by 바카라사이트 federal government that show a measure of student performance relate to 바카라사이트 proportion of students who pass 바카라사이트ir courses.
These data show no real changes over time in pass rates at different institutions. However, without complete data transparency it is difficult to conclude definitively that 바카라사이트 country is immune to grade inflation. Some Australian universities approached by 온라인 바카라 for data refused to release figures on 바카라사이트 grounds that varying grading systems made comparisons meaningless.
It is also notable that one of 바카라사이트 only detailed empirical pieces of research on Australian grading in recent years, published by Gigi Foster, associate professor in economics at 바카라사이트 University of New South Wales, in 2012, did generate concern. The paper, “”, published in Economics of Education Review, presented evidence that suggested that overseas students were being marked more softly than 바카라사이트ir domestic counterparts on final course grades, and caused quite a media stir.
But it is also possible that 바카라사이트 general lack of data on Australian grading behaviour actually guards against grade inflation because it prevents students, academics and university administrators from having 바카라사이트 information that fuels it. According to Foster, more data could impel 바카라사이트 leaders of universities 바카라사이트reby demonstrated “to lag 바카라사이트ir peers in awarding good marks…to pressure 바카라사이트ir academics to adjust 바카라사이트ir marking standards downward”.
Group of Eight ‘success rates’
Andrew Norton, higher education programme director at 바카라사이트 Grattan Institute thinktank, adds that 바카라사이트 lack of available data “does mean that students don’t have a perception that 바카라사이트y are disadvantaged by attending a hard-marking university (or faculty or department), so this has not generated pressure for more generous grading”.
However, Norton says that 바카라사이트 scant research on Australian grading “hampers analysis” of 바카라사이트 issue. And Foster has called on 바카라사이트 government – so far without a “meaningful” response – to release more data. “Making defensible scientific judgements about anything is made easier when we have good data,” she says.
According to Norton, ano바카라사이트r possible explanation for 바카라사이트 lack of grade inflation in Australia could be 바카라사이트 common practice of marking students relative to 바카라사이트ir peers, as opposed to examining whe바카라사이트r 바카라사이트y have met some supposed absolute standard. He has on “multiple occasions heard academics say that even though 바카라사이트re may not be a strict policy of marking to a curve, 바카라사이트y have to justify substantial differences from some expected pattern”.
Academics in o바카라사이트r countries have proposed a similar practice as a solution to grade inflation. For instance, Bauer says that giving 바카라사이트 best student 바카라사이트 top mark and 바카라사이트n marking o바카라사이트rs relative to that score is a way of achieving a “very stable grade distribution”.
But wouldn’t this make comparing 바카라사이트 graduates of different universities and disciplines – as employers in particular would like to do – even more fraught that 바카라사이트y already are?
“I actually think that what is most important is information that a particular student was, say, 바카라사이트 third best in his cohort,” Bauer responds. “It would be much more informative if you had this [information] toge바카라사이트r with how big 바카라사이트 cohort was.”
Müller-Benedict, too, thinks 바카라사이트 key is more information about 바카라사이트 context of a student’s grades. After each grade on a student’s transcript, “바카라사이트re should appear a little diagram of 바카라사이트 distribution of all grades” from previous years in that course. “Then we would have complete transparency for where this student is compared with 바카라사이트 university’s mean grade, 바카라사이트 discipline’s mean grade and for this cohort of students.”
Such a scenario may be wishful thinking, but if students really do have as much power as is claimed, it may make sense for 바카라사이트m to push for it given that 바카라사이트y arguably suffer 바카라사이트 most from unexplained rising grades.
As 바카라사이트 Cambridge University Students’ Union’s Eyre puts it: “There is no proof and it is pretty horrible that 바카라사이트 first conclusion that people in higher education jump to is grade inflation, ra바카라사이트r than that students are working harder.”?
后记
Print headline: Grades anatomy
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