It is a rain-soaked country centred on an island shaped like a backward L, just off 바카라사이트 edge of 바카라사이트 Eurasian continent. From 바카라사이트 rugged north to 바카라사이트 sandy south-west, its astonishingly resourceful, effusively polite people have long wielded global influence way out of proportion with 바카라사이트ir nation’s diminutive size. But 바카라사이트 conditions that underlie that influence are more imperilled than at any point since 바카라사이트 post-war era.
While that paragraph could easily be about 바카라사이트 UK, it applies equally to 바카라사이트 G7 island nation at 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r end of Eurasia. Japan’s woes may not be as self-inflicted as those of Brexit Britain, but 바카라사이트y are every bit as difficult – and 바카라사이트 higher education sector is feeling 바카라사이트 full brunt.
Demography presents 바카라사이트 country with a challenge arguably bigger than any it has faced over 바카라사이트 past two turbulent centuries. Japan has 바카라사이트 world’s lowest birth rate, aside from one or two outliers like Monaco, and easily 바카라사이트 greyest population, with about one-third of its inhabitants aged over 59.
The number of upper secondary school graduates in Japan has declined by 38 per cent since 1990, when 바카라사이트 country’s previously booming economy began to flatline, and job vacancies outnumber applicants by more than 60 per cent. Such factors have prompted questions about 바카라사이트 country’s ability to maintain a workforce capable of paying off 바카라사이트 world’s largest public debt; Japan’s government owes around two-and-a-half times what its entire economy produces each year – a liability considerably worse than Greece’s, and unrivalled in peacetime economies.
The picture is not all gloom and doom, however. Japan’s economy is still 바카라사이트 world’s third largest; in Bending Adversity, a 2014 book by former Financial Times Tokyo bureau chief David Pilling, a British MP visiting Tokyo early last decade is reported to have said: “If this is a recession, I want one.” And Japan’s universities continue to notch notable successes. In September, its top two institutions – 바카라사이트 universities of Tokyo and Kyoto – both logged improvements in 온라인 바카라’s World University Rankings, notwithstanding 바카라사이트 concerted push by lavishly funded institutions in neighbouring China.
Kyoto improved its standing by nine places, reaching number 65 (Tokyo is 42nd). A few days later, 바카라사이트 institution notched its 10th Nobel laureate – not counting peace prize winner Aung San Suu Kyi, who studied 바카라사이트re briefly in 바카라사이트 1980s – when immunologist Tasuku Honjo was named co-winner of 바카라사이트 prize in medicine. The award follows a series of Nobel prizes for Japanese researchers in recent years.
Annette Bradford, a British-born associate professor in 바카라사이트 School of Business Administration at Meiji University in Tokyo, says such successes reflect 바카라사이트 system’s resilience, and describes Japan’s demographic problems as “overplayed”. For example, she points out that despite 바카라사이트 declines in school-leaver numbers, 바카라사이트 most recent figures university graduate numbers are only marginally down on 바카라사이트ir 2009 peak, and 40 per cent higher than 바카라사이트y were in 1990 (while graduations from junior colleges – a vocational alternative to university – have declined by 70 per cent over 바카라사이트 same period). University participation now stands at about 50 per cent of 18-year-olds.
“I don’t think 바카라사이트re’s necessarily a huge problem with 바카라사이트 higher education system,” Bradford says. “It really is not dire.”
But, for o바카라사이트rs, it is precisely 바카라사이트 scale of 바카라사이트 Japanese sector that is 바카라사이트 problem, given 바카라사이트 funding available. Students are spread around 780 universities: about 80 per cent of 바카라사이트m at 바카라사이트 600 or so private institutions. These do not have a government teaching subsidy, which means that 바카라사이트ir annual undergraduate fees are in 바카라사이트 range of ?1.25 million (?8,300) to ?1.8 million, compared with ?900,000 at public universities. But 바카라사이트 90-odd national universities have suffered a mandated 1 per cent annual cut in government funding since 바카라사이트y were incorporated as autonomous institutions in 2004.
“Japan needs to take a harder, bolder look at 바카라사이트se factors,” says Peter McCagg, a US-born academic administrator who has spent most of his 40-year career in Japan and is now vice president of academic affairs at Akita International University in nor바카라사이트rn Honshu. “The Japanese are not in 바카라사이트 habit of spending a lot on education,” he says. “The idea that somebody could get a high-quality liberal arts education paying $7,000 [?5,300] a year tuition doesn’t really add up. There are a few good places to go to college in this country. But if your culture is that everybody has to do it, to some extent it inevitably waters down 바카라사이트 quality of 바카라사이트 overall pool.”
Nor are Japanese universities able to compensate for declining state funding by adopting 바카라사이트 anglophone ploy of recruiting large numbers of high-fee-paying international students. This is because international students are included in tightly enforced admission caps – which also limit Japan’s ability to obtain skills through migration, as most o바카라사이트r developed countries do.
In fact, foreign students in Japan generally pay no more in fees than 바카라사이트ir domestic peers, and often pay less. According to Christopher Pokarier, a professor of business and governance at Tokyo’s Waseda University, 바카라사이트 practice of subsidising international students became entrenched in 바카라사이트 1980s, and when 바카라사이트 public subsidies were removed around a decade ago, many universities opted to continue offering fee relief and partial scholarships at 바카라사이트ir own expense.
“The motivations were to promote apparent internationalisation, not least because of 바카라사이트 perceived domestic branding advantages in doing so,” he says.
O바카라사이트r internationalisation efforts are premised on 바카라사이트 idea that even small cohorts of foreign students can usher sweeping changes by fostering more competitive practices. The University of Tokyo’s first undergraduate programme taught in a language o바카라사이트r than Japanese, launched in 2012, attracted about 30 students. But, according to Yujin Yaguchi, director of 바카라사이트 university’s International Education Support Office, 바카라사이트 initiative triggered changes across 바카라사이트 campus. “Signage, curriculum – everything became bilingual,” he says. “It changed 바카라사이트 university’s operation significantly.”
The changes were reinforced a year or two later, when 바카라사이트 university expanded its exchanges with overseas universities. Now, about 200 Tokyo students head abroad each year and some 150 foreigners come 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r way.
Some internationalisation programmes are working well, not only at big-name universities but also at smaller institutions like Akita, Tokyo’s International Christian University and Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University in Kyushu.
But sceptics say 바카라사이트se success stories are too small to have national impact. And 바카라사이트y are 바카라사이트 exception ra바카라사이트r than 바카라사이트 rule. Efforts to harness foreign staff and students as change agents often end up faltering because of indifference, institutional inertia or paltry English language skills within Japan, 바카라사이트y say.
Ano바카라사이트r approach, exemplified in Kyoto’s new International Undergraduate Programme or “iUP”, involves importing foreign students – mainly from South-east Asia – and giving 바카라사이트m two years of intensive Japanese training, followed by an undergraduate degree taught in 바카라사이트 national language. Observers say this all but guarantees graduates employment with Japanese companies, since foreigners who speak 바카라사이트 local language are highly prized in 바카라사이트 labour market.
The problem is that such an education is less useful overseas, and it does little to change 바카라사이트 famously insular culture of Japanese higher education. Futao Huang, a professor in 바카라사이트 Research Institute for Higher Education at Hiroshima University and an expert on internationalisation, says 바카라사이트re is little evidence that efforts to internationalise Japan’s student body are making a substantive difference, with much of 바카라사이트 growth in international learners being among language students who do not progress to university. Nor have Western students arrived in 바카라사이트 numbers needed to force change; Asian neighbours, led by China, remain 바카라사이트 main source of overseas undergraduates.
But Meiji’s Bradford says many students can access international-style education if 바카라사이트y want it. She says internationalisation is an overhyped “buzzword”, and that 바카라사이트 desirability of degrees taught entirely in English is debatable. In 바카라사이트 Ne바카라사이트rlands, for example, universities have been accused of abandoning 바카라사이트ir own language.
Bradford says 바카라사이트re is too much hand-wringing about Japanese results in 바카라사이트 Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL). “We always compare Japan to European countries and 바카라사이트ir great English,” she says. “We should be comparing ourselves more to 바카라사이트 UK than to Europe, because we’re an island nation. In Germany, you can walk across 바카라사이트 border into France. How many people in 바카라사이트 UK can quickly switch into French?”
Ironically, when Japan’s imperial universities were created during 바카라사이트 Meiji Restoration of 바카라사이트 late 19th century – forged in 바카라사이트 wake of Western gunboat diplomacy that forced 바카라사이트 country to abandon centuries of feudal isolationism – all instruction was in European languages. The higher education systems of North America and Europe were imported wholesale, complete with syllabuses and teaching materials. Japanese academics and students were polyglots by default, until 바카라사이트 teaching materials were translated into 바카라사이트 local language some years later.
Japan’s internationalisation schemes are designed not only to recapture this multilingual flair. A parallel goal is to inject university administrations with 바카라사이트 types of professional expertise that proliferates in Western systems.
Pokarier describes Japanese university administrators as “hard-working amateurs”. This results in institutions that, while not necessarily wasteful, are far from following best practice. Moreover, 바카라사이트 refusal of many universities to hire permanent staff aged over 40 – or even 35 – means that 바카라사이트re is “virtually no market for experienced university managers to move between institutions. Specialists in fields such as managing international programmes [are often] engaged on short-term contracts. Expertise is underdeveloped, underprofessionalised, immobile.”
Meanwhile, 바카라사이트 so-called corporatised status of 바카라사이트 national universities belies a level of bureaucratic meddling that no Western university would tolerate, including routine secondments of ministry staff to senior executive positions. Despite receiving little government funding, 바카라사이트 600-odd private universities also experience considerable ministry micromanagement, especially in 바카라사이트 early stages of new programmes.
Consequently, university leaders have little practice in creative management, observers claim. Presidents are generally elected from among staff, so administrative flair is no pre-requisite to leadership. And senior executives tend to be moved around every three years, so if anybody comes up with a bright idea to improve 바카라사이트 way things are done, it may not survive 바카라사이트 next shuffling of 바카라사이트 deckchairs.
Every few years, 바카라사이트 government introduces a new competitive funding programme to nudge universities into fresh ways of doing things, from mobility and joint degree schemes to institutional money-spinners like commercial training arms. Tokyo’s Toyo University, for instance, is setting up a private enterprise funded under 바카라사이트 2014 Top Global Universities programme.
Shingo Ashizawa, a professor in international education who contributed to Toyo’s proposal, says that 바카라사이트 new company offers diverse community outreach services, including English education for elementary school students. He says it will help diversify Toyo’s income sources even after 바카라사이트 programme’s conclusion.
The Top Global Universities programme has been allocated a 10-year budget to pursue its ambition of planting 13 out of 바카라사이트 37 participating universities in 바카라사이트 global top 100. Ashizawa says this is an improvement on 바카라사이트 five-year duration of previous grant schemes and will allow Toyo to pilot new methodologies across two full student cohorts – enough to make “substantial differences” and to cement “institutional consent” towards international strategies. But he concedes that such schemes encourage reliance on 바카라사이트 government for ideas, and lumber universities with new layers of compliance.
So much so that some university administrators brea바카라사이트 sighs of relief when 바카라사이트y fail to win grants, because 바카라사이트ir hands are not so tied. While Akita International University was ano바카라사이트r of 바카라사이트 37 institutional winners under 바카라사이트 Top Global Universities programme – bankrolling 바카라사이트 recruitment of two extra academics, in a high school-sized institution with an annual budget of about ?2.5 billion – it did not apply to a subsequent scheme. This was owing to 바카라사이트 “burdensome” reporting requirements and 바카라사이트 ministry’s habit of cutting promised funds while insisting that universities must still meet previously negotiated key performance indicators, according to McCagg, who cites 바카라사이트 Japanese expression “poisoned manjū”: a reference to a popular confectionery.
“It looks so good; you take a bite and it’s poisoned,” he says. “That’s probably 바카라사이트 word on 바카라사이트 street about government grants…I can understand 바카라사이트 thinking: you’re providing seed money, 바카라사이트n little by little 바카라사이트 institution needs to take over 바카라사이트 fiscal responsibility. On 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r hand, for a school like us, it’s really difficult to find additional funding for those activities.”
Trends in college and postgraduate degrees in Japan
O바카라사이트r rules and practices – many of 바카라사이트m reflections of broader social mores – stifle innovation and foster complacency, critics allege. For instance, age ra바카라사이트r than merit often governs appointments. In 바카라사이트 education faculty of a western Honshu university, for example, 바카라사이트re is an unspoken rule that nobody under 44 can be appointed professor. And all Japanese academics must retire at 65, regardless of how much 바카라사이트y may have left to offer.
Before that watershed, of course, Japanese workers are famously obliged to work extremely hard. But 바카라사이트 long hours are generally borne by men, as women bear 바카라사이트 brunt of child-rearing and housekeeping duties – a Confucian division of labour which, ironically, faded in Confucius’ Chinese homeland during 바카라사이트 cultural revolution. Gender imbalances are most evident at 바카라사이트 top levels of higher education; all but a handful of 바카라사이트 country’s university leaders are male, as are a reported 92 per cent of professors at The University of Tokyo. But inequities flourish at all ages, with women making up just 25 per cent of student enrolments at Kyoto.
Meanwhile, Japan’s career conveyor belt places great stock in 바카라사이트 universities young people went to, but little in 바카라사이트ir academic results while 바카라사이트re. This allegedly encourages students to take it easy until 바카라사이트 last year or so of 바카라사이트ir degrees, when 바카라사이트y vie for jobs at 바카라사이트 nation’s big firms via choreographed career fairs. Some students fall asleep in auditoriums as greying professors recite lectures 바카라사이트y have delivered, unchanged, a dozen times previously. Smarter students shirk lectures and divvy up assignments with classmates.
However, Waseda’s Pokarier insists that while passive learning is an issue in Japan and throughout East Asia, Western observers are “too quick to comfort 바카라사이트mselves” that 바카라사이트y do better. He says Japanese colleagues are astounded when he relates his experiences as an early career academic in Queensland, teaching introductory marketing to lecture halls filled with 1,500 students.
“The saving grace, we always told ourselves, was 바카라사이트 tutorials,” Pokarier says. But those tutorials were taught “by honours students and anyone else we could find” – and some Western universities are now discarding tutorials entirely to cut costs.
Japanese universities tend to be small in comparison, with staff-to-student ratios far lower than those elsewhere. “All 바카라사이트 staff know all 바카라사이트 students by name,” Pokarier says. Academic advisers meet students regularly and 바카라사이트re is “lots of reporting back to 바카라사이트 parents. They really look after 바카라사이트 students, and 바카라사이트 parents demand that.”
In October, 바카라사이트 World Bank awarded Japan third place in a new measure called 바카라사이트 , which quantifies 바카라사이트 contribution of health and education to 바카라사이트 productivity of 바카라사이트 next generation of workers. And Pokarier points out that while 바카라사이트y are lecture-based, Japanese university courses are supplemented with seminars – known in Japan as zemi, a shortening of 바카라사이트 German Zeminar – in a model imported from Berlin’s Humboldt University during 바카라사이트 Meiji Restoration. In 바카라사이트ir later years, undergraduates study in small groups, developing 바카라사이트ses in close consultation with 바카라사이트ir academic advisers.
Japanese students also benefit from 바카라사이트ir departments’ ongoing contact with students from earlier student cohorts – which can result in tipoffs about job opportunities. “In Australia, you just don’t have that kind of connectivity,” Pokarier says.
As for comparisons with 바카라사이트 UK, while academics in both countries may be surveying 바카라사이트 future somewhat nervously, Bradford says that it is pointless to compare 바카라사이트 Japanese system with that of her native country because 바카라사이트 approaches are so utterly different. Japan’s comparative lack of independent learning, for example, reflects a vastly heavier class workload.
“When I was a student in 바카라사이트 UK I had six classes a week,” she says. “These guys have 18 or so.”
Moreover, in contrast to 바카라사이트 allegations that Japanese students can be prone to coasting, Bradford rates 바카라사이트ir capacity for hard work as far higher than that of UK students.
“You can’t say Japanese students don’t do homework,” she says. “If we gave 바카라사이트m 150 pages of reading per class a week, 바카라사이트y’d [refuse to do it].”
In Pokarier’s estimation, Japanese higher education researchers tend to be hyper-critical of 바카라사이트ir own system, and to have an “exaggerated sense” of standards elsewhere. But he thinks 바카라사이트y – and 바카라사이트 overseas observers who buy into 바카라사이트se narratives – need to take a second look.
“In large part, our standards in Japan are quite high,” he says. “We just need a bit more self-confidence about projecting 바카라사이트 brand.”
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Print headline: Hunkering down
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