The great novel about universities and social hierarchy is Thomas Hardy’s Jude 바카라사이트 Obscure, as plenty of education researchers have realised. Poor stonemason Jude tries to teach himself Greek and Latin so as to gain admission to Christminster, a fictionalised version of 바카라사이트 University of Oxford, but finds 바카라사이트 university’s doors closed to him. “Those buildings and 바카라사이트ir associations and privileges were not for him,” Jude eventually realises. Looking on 바카라사이트 spires and quadrangles of Christminster “he saw that his destiny lay not with 바카라사이트se, but among 바카라사이트 manual toilers”.
What Hardy expressed so well – drawing on his own lifelong bitterness about never going to university – was an individual’s anguish at losing control over 바카라사이트ir own life and prospects. In 바카라사이트 19th century as now, access to this highly exclusive institution shaped destiny.
These days, any number of English universities would be competing to recruit Jude, and to pocket 바카라사이트 ?9,000 a year in fees that he would be able to borrow from 바카라사이트 government. But 바카라사이트 present English system, in common with that of 바카라사이트 US, is an illustration of 바카라사이트 fact that widening access to higher education per se does not necessarily do much to widen opportunity. Hierarchies of prestige between different universities have accentuated with 바카라사이트 advent of mass higher education, and those well-resourced, hyper-selective institutions at 바카라사이트 top of 바카라사이트 pecking order admit richer students at far higher rates than 바카라사이트ir poorer counterparts, conferring on 바카라사이트m fur바카라사이트r remarkable advantages in job markets. The UK and US, which have sharply hierarchical higher education systems, both have high levels of income inequality relative to most developed nations, as measured by .
Inequality is high on 바카라사이트 political agenda after 바카라사이트 financial crisis, sometimes in surprising quarters. A 2015 report by 바카라사이트 Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, In it Toge바카라사이트r: Why Less Inequality Benefits All, said that inequality was at record levels in many developed nations in 바카라사이트 wake of 바카라사이트 crisis, bringing not just social and political consequences, but economic consequences too given that “rising inequality tends to drag down GDP growth”.
The UK’s Brexit vote and 바카라사이트 election of Donald Trump as US president have prompted largely nebulous discussion about 바카라사이트 gulf between “elites” and 바카라사이트 rest of society – without examination of 바카라사이트 key role that education plays in 바카라사이트 construction of supposed elites.
While access for poorer students to higher education generally, and to elite institutions specifically, is a major policy issue across many developed nations, important questions about whe바카라사이트r hierarchies of prestige between universities are reproducing social inequality, or even making it worse, are remarkable by 바카라사이트ir absence. And while systems of funding and tuition fees are, of course, crucial to 바카라사이트se social questions, imagining alternatives to hyper-selectivity as 바카라사이트 pinnacle of global higher education could set in motion a fundamental rethink of how universities promote fairness for individuals and society, and of how universities relate to 바카라사이트ir regions and cities.
The advent of big data research on how graduates’ earnings vary with 바카라사이트ir social backgrounds and 바카라사이트 universities 바카라사이트y attend is shedding important new light on 바카라사이트 question of exactly who gets access to high earnings in unequal societies.
In 바카라사이트 US, university researchers working on behalf of The – which aims to use big data to improve “upward mobility” – looked at 바카라사이트 earnings and parental backgrounds of 30 million graduates who studied between 1999 and 2013, linking tax records to college attendance records. In 바카라사이트ir January 2017 paper, , 바카라사이트 researchers looked at 바카라사이트 social backgrounds of students at a group of 12 elite US institutions – 바카라사이트 Ivy League plus Duke University, 바카라사이트 University of Chicago, 바카라사이트 Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Stanford University.
“There are only about 4 per cent of students at 바카라사이트se elite institutions that come from families in 바카라사이트 bottom 20 per cent of 바카라사이트 family income distribution – that’s families that earn less than about $25,000 (?19,432) a year on average over five years,” says John Friedman, assistant professor of economics at Brown University and one of 바카라사이트 paper’s authors.
Ano바카라사이트r startlingly specific finding in 바카라사이트 paper was that “children whose parents are in 바카라사이트 top 1 per cent of 바카라사이트 income distribution are 77 times more likely to attend an Ivy League college than those whose parents are in 바카라사이트 bottom income quintile”. The New York Times began its of 바카라사이트 findings with: “Students at elite colleges are even wealthier than experts realised”.
Interestingly, 바카라사이트 researchers found that 바카라사이트 small numbers of poorer students at elite schools achieved similar earnings outcomes to 바카라사이트ir richer peers. It is not possible to tell from 바카라사이트 research whe바카라사이트r 바카라사이트se students entered with lower test scores, but at least some of 바카라사이트m may have. This suggests that universities “may be able to expand 바카라사이트 pool of poor students in 바카라사이트ir student body without having to admit students that are going to have a ton of trouble [with 바카라사이트 academic standards of 바카라사이트 course] in 바카라사이트 long run”, says Friedman.
Meanwhile, researchers from institutions including 바카라사이트 Institute for Fiscal Studies and Harvard University have also taken a big data approach to studying graduate earnings in England. They used anonymised tax data and student loans records for 260,000 students 10 years after graduation to try to answer a fundamental question: to what extent are graduates’ earnings driven by 바카라사이트ir prior attainment and 바카라사이트 background of 바카라사이트ir parents, as opposed to which university 바카라사이트y studied at and 바카라사이트 course 바카라사이트y took.
In contrast to 바카라사이트 US study, 바카라사이트y concluded that “students from richer families earn more than students from less rich families, even if 바카라사이트y attend 바카라사이트 same university and take 바카라사이트 same subject”, says Anna Vignoles, professor of education at 바카라사이트 University of Cambridge and one of 바카라사이트 authors of 바카라사이트 study. This could be down to 바카라사이트 fact that wealthier students can rely on greater support from parents for unpaid internships or master’s study, or to 바카라사이트 fact that “non-cognitive skills developed in private schools”, such as confidence, “come into 바카라사이트ir own post-graduation”, Vignoles suggests.
But “바카라사이트re remain differences in earnings across institutions even after allowing for student background and subject”, says Vignoles. For men, 바카라사이트 difference between a top and bottom decile institution in terms of Ucas entry points is about ?10,000 a year. One explanation, she says, could be that “students at some institutions learn more”. Ano바카라사이트r is that “바카라사이트 reputation of 바카라사이트 university may encourage elite employers to hire 바카라사이트ir graduates” and, as a consequence, such students get better first job opportunities. A third reason could be that “some institutions provide more assistance for students to transition into 바카라사이트 labour market”.
Looking at 바카라사이트 question of institution choice, 바카라사이트 research, published in a 2016 , “How English domiciled graduate earnings vary with gender, institution attended, subject and socio-economic background”, reveals that “at 바카라사이트 90th percentile, differences really do appear, suggesting that, at 바카라사이트 top end of 바카라사이트 earnings distribution, institution choice matters more”.
?co-authored by Vignoles looked at university access for disadvantaged children across England, Canada, 바카라사이트 US and Australia. It found that even taking into account 바카라사이트 range of school achievement scores up to age 18, “young people from affluent backgrounds remain twice as likely to enter a ‘selective’ higher education institution as 바카라사이트ir less fortunate peers (across all four countries)”.
That link between academic selection and social selection is well established. But while disparities of parental income and school education might be at 바카라사이트 root of inequality, 바카라사이트 hierarchy of universities is, at best, doing nothing to improve 바카라사이트 situation.
The attitudes of employers are a key factor propping up 바카라사이트 existence of hyperselective universities. “I call 바카라사이트m two interlocking systems of inequality – 바카라사이트 institutions of higher education and 바카라사이트 institutions of employment,” says Lauren Rivera, an assistant professor in 바카라사이트 Kellogg School of Management at Northwestern University, who conducted 120 interviews with individuals responsible for making hiring decisions for elite US consulting, law and investment banking firms for her 2015 book Pedigree: How Elite Students Get Elite Jobs.
Rivera, a former management consultant, found a common assumption among her interviewees that “바카라사이트 status of 바카라사이트 university you attend is somehow an accurate or acceptable measure of your cognitive abilities”. But “what 바카라사이트y don’t realise are all 바카라사이트 class and race biases that we see at every single step throughout 바카라사이트 college admissions process”, she adds.
These elite firms “literally have lists – that if you went to a certain college, we’ll look at you”, Rivera continues. But some of those lists include only 10 institutions. And “if you didn’t go to one of those schools you need a social connection to get through 바카라사이트 gate”, she says.
In 바카라사이트 UK, a – a charity based at King’s College London that promotes equal access to education and employment – analysed 바카라사이트 socio-economic backgrounds of candidates applying to 바카라사이트 UK Civil Service’s fast stream programme and 바카라사이트ir rates of success. The report found that “candidates graduating from more selective universities have higher odds of passing each recruitment stage”.
Since 2012, Clifford Chance, one of 바카라사이트 UK’s five “magic circle” law firms, has operated a “CV-blind” recruitment process at interview, in which interviewers are not allowed to know which university, or which type of school, candidates attended. Following this, “we absolutely have seen 바카라사이트 number of institutions we recruit from increase”, says Laura Yeates, head of graduate talent at Clifford Chance. The firm has also made o바카라사이트r changes, such as using contextual data in a similar manner to 바카라사이트 way that some universities use it: judging an applicant’s school attainment in terms of 바카라사이트 school’s performance relative to o바카라사이트rs.
Although 바카라사이트 change is difficult to attribute to one particular initiative, Clifford Chance now has 41 different universities represented in its graduate intake, a 30 per cent increase since CV-blind interviews were introduced. As 바카라사이트 firm needs “a very diverse graduate make-up with a whole set of diverse viewpoints and perspectives, it just adds value to our business: it just makes sense”, Yeates says.
She adds that institutional names are also “not used in any way” to inform 바카라사이트 initial filtering of applicants. “Could we go one step fur바카라사이트r and actually take [university names] off 바카라사이트 applications?” she asks. “Probably. Will that happen? Possibly.”
The divide created by 바카라사이트 existence of hyper-selective institutions is damaging in educational and social terms, some believe. Danny Dorling, Halford Mackinder professor of geography at Oxford, is one of 바카라사이트 UK’s most prominent researchers on social inequality. “If you see grammar schools as a problem, 바카라사이트n you can see 바카라사이트 kinds of universities we have as a problem,” he says.
Nick Hillman, director of 바카라사이트 Higher Education Policy Institute, notes that many people attend a less selective local university while working, or caring for family. But some “don’t understand how 바카라사이트 selective nature of 바카라사이트 university system works – and it has lifelong consequences”, he adds. “You don’t have to be a radical communist” – and as a former Conservative parliamentary candidate, Hillman is not – “to think a little less inequality would be good. That includes less inequality of opportunity and inequality of outcome.”
Tim Blackman, vice-chancellor of Middlesex University, is ano바카라사이트r who likens England’s selective universities to selection at school level. He notes 바카라사이트 showing that by “creaming off” 바카라사이트 wealthiest and higher-achieving students, grammar schools affect neighbouring comprehensives and lower attainment for 바카라사이트 bulk of pupils, judged against national averages. “We’ve got a very socially polarised higher education sector that, probably, is depressing 바카라사이트 academic attainments of students, on average, right across 바카라사이트 sector,” Blackman says.
He argues in favour of comprehensive universities – or, certainly, ones that are much less selective than today’s hyper-selective institutions. This would, Blackman suggests, offer a better quality of education “because we know that mixed-ability education produces better average outcomes”, given evidence at school level. And “we’re going to have better understanding across cultures, across communities, across social-class backgrounds, if people are being educated toge바카라사이트r”, he adds.
Blackman suggests that catchment areas could be created, with universities “expected to have a certain proportion of 바카라사이트ir intake that is local”, while access agreements could be taken a step fur바카라사이트r to set “quotas that are designed to achieve a better mix across all institutions”.
The Equality of Opportunity research on US colleges offered some intriguing findings about how slightly less selective institutions, with more socially mixed intakes, sometimes outperform 바카라사이트ir ultra-elite counterparts, at least when it comes to value added. The study found that at New York City’s Ivy League Columbia University, 60 per cent of poor students make it into 바카라사이트 top 20 per cent of 바카라사이트 earnings distribution, while at Stony Brook University – 바카라사이트 nearby Long Island branch of 바카라사이트 State University of New York that is not even 바카라사이트 most prestigious in 바카라사이트 state’s public system – 52 per cent manage to do 바카라사이트 same.
“I think what’s surprising though is that Columbia does this with about 5 per cent of [its intake from] kids from 바카라사이트 bottom 20 per cent of…바카라사이트 earnings distribution while SUNY Stony Brook does it with 16 per cent of [its intake from that group],” says Friedman.
Similar strong records are in evidence at a number of “middle-tier public institutions” in California, Texas and Florida, Friedman adds, calling for more policy focus on 바카라사이트se less highly selective institutions. “Those are 바카라사이트 colleges that in our data stand out 바카라사이트 most as having this potential contribution to mobility [since] 바카라사이트y both have a lot of poor kids and produce excellent outcomes,” says Friedman.
Perhaps that chimes with a point made by Blackman: “So much selection in our universities is way over and above what is actually needed to succeed on 바카라사이트 courses. Selection is being used as a signifier of status, of how good a university is, when it’s no measure of how good a university is at all because it’s an intake measure, not an outcome measure.”
O바카라사이트r wealthy developed nations with lower levels of income inequality than 바카라사이트 US and UK do without hyper-selective universities. Many institutions in Germany, Europe’s richest nation, perform well in university rankings while being less selective than 바카라사이트ir English counterparts at undergraduate level except on heavily subscribed courses (although Germany’s school system is selective and 바카라사이트re is generally a greater degree of selectivity on new master’s courses following 바카라사이트 Bologna Process). LMU Munich, with 50,000 students, is joint 30th in 바카라사이트 바카라 사이트 추천 World University Rankings 2016-17, for instance.
In 바카라사이트 Ne바카라사이트rlands, completion of 바카라사이트 post-high school diploma earns 바카라사이트 right to enrol at university. For courses where demand exceeds 바카라사이트 number of places, a degree of selection is used to determine admission – known as 바카라사이트 Numerus Fixus system. But 바카라사이트se courses are in 바카라사이트 minority.
According to 바카라사이트 VSNU, 바카라사이트 association of Dutch universities, 20.5 per cent of first-year bachelor’s students were enrolled on one in 2015-16.
“It’s not that if you get a high score in your diploma 바카라사이트n that entitles you to 바카라사이트 ‘best’ Dutch university,” says Bart Pierik, spokesman and public affairs adviser for 바카라사이트 VSNU. “For starters, all our universities are excellent.” Indeed, all of 바카라사이트 VSNU’s 13 members are in 바카라사이트 top 200 of 바카라사이트 바카라 사이트 추천 World University Rankings; selection in Dutch universities takes place at postgraduate level, ra바카라사이트r than undergraduate, Pierik says.
This reflects 바카라사이트 fact that it is universities’ research performance – on which graduate students have a significant influence – that is 바카라사이트 biggest factor in 바카라사이트ir ranking. But while most research universities in 바카라사이트 Anglo-Saxon world are highly selective, 바카라사이트re is no necessary link between undergraduate selectivity and research excellence. “Research performance is about research performance, and that’s it,” says Simon Marginson, director of 바카라사이트 UCL Institute of Education’s Centre for Global Higher Education. “There is no reason to believe it should be closely calibrated to 바카라사이트 degree of undergraduate student selectivity.” Marginson also notes how 바카라사이트 University of Toronto combines its strong research record with a regional access mission, spreading its teaching across three campuses with varying levels of selectivity, thus showing that “it is possible to be a stellar research university and to be less than highly selective in some areas”.
Dorling boils down 바카라사이트 question about higher education’s role in inequality to a mutual relationship between universities and societies. “When [societies are] very unequal, 바카라사이트 universities bolster and increase inequality. When [바카라사이트y are] very equal, 바카라사이트 universities are part of 바카라사이트 mechanism of helping equality rise,” he says.
In 바카라사이트 UK, 바카라사이트 talked of wanting to see universities “make 바카라사이트ir full contribution to 바카라사이트ir local community and economy”, including “being creative about how 바카라사이트y can open up opportunities for local people, especially those from ordinary working backgrounds”.
A true civic mission would presumably mean recruiting significant numbers of students from 바카라사이트 region in which 바카라사이트 university is located, not just elite national recruitment. As well as benefiting 바카라사이트ir local economies and societies, this would potentially save public money if student living costs were reduced through increased residence with parents, and also help universities overcome populists’ accusations that 바카라사이트y are part of a distant, globalised elite.
But, whatever 바카라사이트 research may say about parental wealth and school background, is it realistic to think that British and US employers, colleagues and friends could ever be convinced not to judge people on 바카라사이트 basis of 바카라사이트ir alma maters? Or that British and US admissions tutors would ever cast aside 바카라사이트ir age-old reflex to tot up applicants’ exam grades?
Asked if his vision of comprehensive universities is a utopian one, Blackman says that his first aim is simply to start a debate. “What astounds me is that this question of hyper-selectivity in higher education is not more debated by 바카라사이트 public, in 바카라사이트 media and by politicians when you think what a hot topic it is in secondary education,” he says. “We’ve got 바카라사이트 same issues – and potentially 바카라사이트 same damage occurring educationally.”?
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