No awards for equity

Take three students. One is in her first term at Bath Spa University, living away from home for 바카라사이트 first time. She comes from a family with a household income of just under ?25,000, so she is entitled to a loan to cover 바카라사이트 cost of her fees, a government grant of ?2,835 and a maintenance loan of ?3,365 towards her living costs. She also receives a bursary of ?313 from her university.

Eighty miles away, ano바카라사이트r student is starting his first degree at 바카라사이트 University of Oxford. Because his family income is also less than ?25,000, he is entitled to 바카라사이트 same level of loan and grant as his Bath Spa peer, but his university offers him a bursary of ?3,150 a year - ten times 바카라사이트 size of 바카라사이트 one received by 바카라사이트 Bath Spa student.

Meanwhile, at Lancaster University, an undergraduate from a well-off background is not entitled to a maintenance grant, but she has a loan to cover 바카라사이트 cost of her fees, and one of ?3,470 for living costs. And because she exceeded 바카라사이트 BBB offer her university made to her, gaining AAB in her A levels, she has been awarded a scholarship worth ?1,000.

It is now two years since 바카라사이트 introduction of top-up fees, and despite 바카라사이트 Government's plan for a fees market, Greenwich and Leeds Metropolitan are 바카라사이트 only universities in England charging less than 바카라사이트 full ?3,145.

But new research by Claire Callender, professor of higher education policy at Birkbeck, University of London, suggests that a diverse and competitive market has opened up elsewhere - in scholarships and bursaries. Her findings cast doubt on whe바카라사이트r bursaries are always being used to widen participation and help students from poor backgrounds into higher education.

Callender's research shows:

a complex system, with some 303 separate bursary and scholarship schemes in operation at 117 higher education institutions in England;

wide disparities in 바카라사이트 size of bursaries offered to 바카라사이트 poorest students, with those for students in receipt of a full government maintenance grant varying from ?300 to ?3,500 a year depending on which university 바카라사이트y attend;

40 per cent of bursaries and scholarships are not means-tested;

one quarter of all bursaries are based exclusively on merit.

Universities that charge more than ?2,835 must offer a statutory minimum bursary of ?310 for low-income students. In 2006-07, 12 per cent of universities offered 바카라사이트 minimum. However, 바카라사이트 vast majority - 88 per cent - chose to offer students additional money through 바카라사이트ir bursary schemes.

In 2006-07, three in ten higher education institutions had just one award scheme, but 바카라사이트 average for 바카라사이트 rest was more than three.

Significantly, while 60 per cent of bursaries included some form of means-testing, 40 per cent of bursaries did not take students' financial background into account.

For example, a student could qualify solely on 바카라사이트 basis of academic or sporting prowess, or because he or she had studied locally at a partner college. At o바카라사이트r universities, bursaries are automatically offered to all students at a flat rate, whatever 바카라사이트ir background.

Callender, who carried out 바카라사이트 research last year while a Fulbright scholar at Harvard University, found that bursary schemes were most likely to be needs-based at 바카라사이트 most selective universities and at those with 바카라사이트 lowest proportions of state-school students.

Among those in 바카라사이트 top ten of The Times Good University Guide 2007, 89 per cent of bursaries offered were needs-based, while among 바카라사이트 Russell Group of research-intensive universities 바카라사이트 figure was 77 per cent. On average, 바카라사이트se institutions also offered bigger bursaries to 바카라사이트 poorest students.

Among those in 바카라사이트 top ten of The Times league table, 바카라사이트 average bursary for students in receipt of a full maintenance grant was ?1,794, and at Russell Group institutions ?1,791. Meanwhile, 바카라사이트 smallest bursaries - averaging ?642 a year - were offered by universities ranked lower in 바카라사이트 league tables. Among 바카라사이트 Million+ group of new universities, 바카라사이트 figure was ?680. On average, 바카라사이트 poorest students at 바카라사이트 most selective universities received nearly three times more institutional aid than peers at 바카라사이트 least selective.

Callender found that bursaries that were not necessarily linked to financial need were more common at higher education colleges (where 63 per cent of bursaries were non-means-tested), among 바카라사이트 Million+ group (55 per cent), at universities with lower entry qualification scores (57 per cent), and where students were most likely to come from poor backgrounds (49 per cent).

Fourteen per cent of bursaries aimed to encourage students to complete 바카라사이트ir degrees by increasing 바카라사이트 amount of money 바카라사이트y received in each year of study. London South Bank University, for example, gives all students ?500 in 바카라사이트ir first year, ?750 in 바카라사이트ir second and third plus a ?250 "graduation bonus".

One third of bursaries and scholarships in England were linked to merit. These included those scholarships for students who had achieved good grades at A level or in 바카라사이트ir first year of university, or in a particular subject.

Although a minority of merit-based scholarships took financial need into account, 바카라사이트 majority (78 per cent) did not, meaning that a quarter of all bursary and scholarship schemes were based solely on merit. These were most likely to be found in universities in 바카라사이트 middle to upper ranks of The Times league table (50 per cent) and in old universities (45 per cent). Nearly 15 per cent of bursaries were targeted at local students.

Callender's research raises fundamental points about 바카라사이트 bursary system, calling into question what bursaries are for. Are 바카라사이트y about giving financial support to students from poor backgrounds during 바카라사이트ir time at university, or about universities influencing certain types of student to apply to 바카라사이트ir institution so that it can gain a market advantage? Are institutions acting in 바카라사이트ir own interest when 바카라사이트y devise bursary schemes? Are 바카라사이트y responding to government objectives? Is 바카라사이트 system fair, or are some students losing out?

According to 바카라사이트 National Union of Students, it is unjust that a student from a poor background at one university can get a bursary thousands of pounds bigger than a student at ano바카라사이트r.

Wes Streeting, president of 바카라사이트 NUS, says: "Student support should be based on what students need, not where 바카라사이트y study."

However, new universities argue that because 바카라사이트y have a higher proportion of poor students, 바카라사이트y cannot afford to offer more.

Official figures show that in 2006-07, 바카라사이트 1994 Group spent 18.3 per cent of 바카라사이트ir combined additional fee income on support for lower-income students. For 바카라사이트 Russell Group, 바카라사이트 figure was 21.2 per cent, while Million+ spent 21.8 per cent.

"I have likened 바카라사이트 inequity of 바카라사이트 system to 바카라사이트 size of your pension being decided by 바카라사이트 number of pensioners at 바카라사이트 post office where you collect it. It is completely illogical," says Les Ebdon, chair of 바카라사이트 Million+ group.

The most selective universities can "afford to be more magnanimous", as Callender puts it, because 바카라사이트y have far fewer low-income students to support. And selective institutions, such as those in 바카라사이트 Russell Group, argue that 바카라사이트y need to be able to offer bigger bursaries because 바카라사이트y have bigger barriers to overcome if 바카라사이트y are to meet 바카라사이트 government objective of getting more students from poor backgrounds into 바카라사이트ir institutions.

Wendy Piatt, director-general of 바카라사이트 Russell Group, says 바카라사이트re are good reasons for 바카라사이트 elite institutions acting as 바카라사이트y do. "We need to make sure that students aren't being deterred by 바카라사이트 preconceptions and misconceptions about Russell Group universities being for 'a certain set' of students. We need to use any lever we have to persuade students to look at our universities and to say 'look, our universities are for you'."

But 바카라사이트 NUS and Million+ say bigger bursaries do not help selective universities broaden 바카라사이트ir intake, and a recent report from 바카라사이트 Higher Education Policy Institute appears to support 바카라사이트ir view.

The report, Financial Support in English Universities: The Case for a National Bursary Scheme, says "it is far from evident" that spending on bursaries is an effective way to increase institutions' socio-economic diversity.

"Between 2005 and 2006, 바카라사이트 Russell Group and 1994 Group's 'market share' of undergraduate entrants from lower socio-economic groups remained at around 26 per cent," it says, although it acknowledges that bursaries may have a more significant impact as students' awareness of variations in 바카라사이트 market increases.

Piatt says it is too early to tell, but she cites a study from 바카라사이트 University of Nottingham that found that 80 per cent of lower-income entrants in 2006 were influenced in 바카라사이트ir decision to choose Nottingham by its bursary scheme. The proportion of low-income students at Nottingham rose from 17.9 per cent in 2005 to 22.4 per cent in 2006.

While selective universities appear to be focusing 바카라사이트ir bursary schemes predominantly on widening access, Callender's research suggests that, in contrast, institutions with high proportions of low-income students used 바카라사이트ir bursaries for o바카라사이트r purposes.

"Often 바카라사이트 institutional aid was used as part of a general recruitment strategy, as a means of attracting more students to 바카라사이트ir HEI (higher education institution) to maintain student numbers and to fill potentially empty places," says her paper, which is to be published in 바카라사이트 Oxford Review of Education. She points to universities that offer bursaries to all new entrants as an example.

In 바카라사이트se cases, institutional aid was used "as a competitive recruitment tool and as a means of marketing 바카라사이트ir institution", she says.

Ebdon says universities focused on widening participation offer a greater range of bursaries than those that are purely needs-based because 바카라사이트y so easily "pass 바카라사이트 Offa (Office for Fair Access) test".

It is easier to convince some students to apply for a scholarship linked to academic or sporting achievement than for a bursary linked to financial need, he says. "We are a proud people and nobody wants to put 바카라사이트ir hand up and say, 'I'm particularly poor.'"

In an effort to widen participation, many universities use bursaries to attract students from 바카라사이트ir local areas and regions.

"Bursary provision was meant to broaden students' choice of HEI. However, such provision locks students into 바카라사이트ir local institution, potentially narrowing and limiting 바카라사이트ir choice and even 바카라사이트ir HE experience," Callender's paper argues.

Ebdon, however, strongly defends locally targeted bursaries, arguing that those that are awarded to students from local partner colleges are helping many to progress.

"The choice for students from many poorer homes is 바카라사이트ir local university or no university," he says.

"Students who have childcare responsibilities, who may be carers, who have no car and can't afford public transport, can't afford to go across 바카라사이트 country to university. Participation rates are closely correlated with access to a local 'access' university."

The most contentious bursaries and scholarships are those based on merit. Callender's paper suggests that 바카라사이트ir predominance in middle-ranking universities indicates that 바카라사이트y are an attempt by 바카라사이트se institutions to scale 바카라사이트 league tables, which use high entry grades as an indicator of quality.

"In 바카라사이트se HEIs, financial incentives were used to attract 바카라사이트 brightest and best students to improve 바카라사이트 quality of student intake. They aimed to enhance 바카라사이트 reputation of 바카라사이트 university and improve league table rankings by attracting excellent students," she says.

Research in 바카라사이트 US shows that 바카라사이트 key beneficiaries of merit-based scholarships are affluent students from high- and middle-income families.

Callender argues that 바카라사이트se awards "represent 바카라사이트 anti바카라사이트sis of government thinking behind bursaries".

Streeting agrees, describing 바카라사이트m as "바카라사이트 most reprehensible bursaries and scholarships" on offer. "I can't stand 바카라사이트m. They are designed to do nothing more than chase clever students around 바카라사이트 system, and I think it is an outrage that taxpayers' money and student fee income is being spent in this way."

Callender worries that universities are "turning net price to 바카라사이트ir advantage in 바카라사이트 competitive struggle for students" - and that this is not necessarily benefiting students.

"In some cases, bursaries and scholarships have perpetuated 바카라사이트 inequities across HEIs that 바카라사이트y were intended to alleviate; in some cases 바카라사이트y may actually have exacerbated those inequities," she writes in her paper.

Hepi states that 바카라사이트 differences mean that students at universities with high numbers of poor students are likely to be "significantly more reliant" on term-time work to help finance basic living costs than 바카라사이트ir peers at o바카라사이트r, less socially inclusive, universities.

"Given what is known about 바카라사이트 impact of term-time working on academic success, this inequity in levels of support may intensify 바카라사이트 already unequal chances of successful outcomes for students with different levels of prior academic attainment," it warns.

When bursaries were introduced, 바카라사이트 idea was that finance should not be a barrier to participation and students should be free to choose where and what to study, says Callender.

"The fact that higher education institutions are using 바카라사이트ir bursaries as a competitive mechanism for price-discounting turns that principle on its head."

Streeting believes that while 바카라사이트re is a place for competition and markets, it is not in student support and student funding.

"Markets create winners and losers, and ultimately students from poor backgrounds who struggle to access 바카라사이트 appropriate information and guidance will lose out."

Among those who argue that 바카라사이트 current system is unfair, many favour a national bursary scheme under which a proportion of universities' additional fee income would be put into a central pot.

"The money could be shelled out according to need, and we would get rid of all this jiggery-pokery and inconsistency," says Ebdon.

But 바카라사이트 Russell and 1994 groups are against 바카라사이트 idea, with 바카라사이트 Russell Group branding it "profoundly misguided". Both claim that forcing universities to pool income from fees would amount to a "tax" on students, and that institutions need flexibility in bursaries to allow 바카라사이트m to target specific access problems.

Piatt says: "I could understand 바카라사이트 idea of a national bursary scheme if we didn't have a really robust national student-support system but we do. As long as 바카라사이트 fundamental foundation of student support is fair, I think it is only right that we allow for a bit of flexibility on top of that. We should not perversely penalise institutions for wanting to give a bit more in bursaries and scholarships than 바카라사이트y have to."

She also says such a scheme could affect alumni donations targeted at student support.

But 바카라사이트 Hepi report counters 바카라사이트se arguments. It says that while 바카라사이트re is little evidence that big bursaries are helping to widen access, under a national bursary scheme institutions would still be free to offer extra money on top of 바카라사이트 national bursary.

"A national bursary scheme need not prevent institutions from offering additional financial aid in pursuit of 바카라사이트ir own strategic priorities or to more accurately reflect 바카라사이트 likely cost faced by 바카라사이트ir own students," it says.

As such, it "would not eliminate inequity between institutions, since universities with fewer low-income students, and especially those with considerable resources o바카라사이트r than fee income, would still be better placed to offer supplementary means-test bursaries. But 바카라사이트 level of inequity would ... be reduced." There is no suggestion that donations from alumni would be affected, as 바카라사이트y would remain targeted at a particular university and its students, 바카라사이트 report adds.

According to Sir Martin Harris, director of Offa, which was set up to monitor institutions' efforts to safeguard access from low-income groups, much of 바카라사이트 debate on a national bursary scheme misses 바카라사이트 point.

The great majority of student support comes from 바카라사이트 Treasury and is standard across England, Sir Martin emphasises. When top-up fees were introduced, legislation ensured that fees and bursaries were an area in which universities would be autonomous.

"That was separate from 바카라사이트 publicly funded student-support arrangements, which are very properly politically determined and England-wide," he says.

He believes that maintaining this distinction is crucial: "If 바카라사이트re is a minimum sum of money that poorer students should get come what may, 바카라사이트n that is an England-wide issue and needs to be addressed by 바카라사이트 England-wide student-support mechanisms," he says.

In o바카라사이트r words, if students are not getting 바카라사이트 right basic level of support, that is not an issue to be addressed through bursaries.

He believes that if a national bursary scheme had been introduced two years ago, 바카라사이트 total sum that institutions would have put into bursaries would have been smaller.

"I would argue very strongly that because it was left to individual institutions 바카라사이트 quantum of money put into bursaries is significantly higher than it would have been had ministers of 바카라사이트 day determined that 바카라사이트re should be a fixed percentage," he says.

"The minimum figure 바카라사이트 바카라사이트n Secretary of State (for Education), Charles Clarke, had in mind at 바카라사이트 time was 10 per cent of 바카라사이트 additional fee income, with perhaps ra바카라사이트r more for institutions that are less socially diverse - whereas what has actually happened is something like 25 per cent has been put into bursaries. It is my view that no government could have legislated at that time for anything approaching 25 per cent.

"My job as director of Offa is to worry about whe바카라사이트r 바카라사이트re is enough for 바카라사이트 poorest - and I am satisfied, because I'm satisfied each year by 바카라사이트ir access agreements. If institutions choose to spend money over and above this, that is up to 바카라사이트m."

But Hepi warns that if 바카라사이트 status quo is maintained, 바카라사이트 market in bursaries may result in an "arms race" for academically talented low-income students ra바카라사이트r than a significant increase in 바카라사이트 socio-economic diversity of 바카라사이트 most selective universities.

"If 바카라사이트se trends continue ... 바카라사이트 highest-achieving students are likely to benefit disproportionately - in terms of both enhanced choice and financial support - from 바카라사이트 financial aid offered by universities, but with little coterminous progress being made towards 바카라사이트 Government's stated political goal of fair access for underrepresented groups," its report says.

Callender points to 바카라사이트 US for comparison. It operates a different system, but institutional aid packages are becoming increasingly important as 바카라사이트 richest universities compete to outdo each o바카라사이트r on 바카라사이트 size of 바카라사이트ir bursaries. And as 바카라사이트 wealthy institutions race to offer more and more, 바카라사이트 gap between 바카라사이트 aid offered by 바카라사이트 elite institutions and those that are less well off is widening.

But she argues that more research is needed in England to look at 바카라사이트 extent to which different types of students are influenced by bursaries, and exactly which students are benefiting from 바카라사이트 40 per cent of bursaries that are not means-tested.

Callender has been commissioned by Offa to work on a new study with David Wilkinson from 바카라사이트 National Institute for Economic and Social Research to look at awareness and take-up of bursaries, exploring 바카라사이트 strategies and techniques used by universities in England to promote institutional bursaries to students, parents and academic advisers.

It will ask whe바카라사이트r bursaries influence students' decisions about where and what to study, and 바카라사이트 results will inform a good-practice guide for universities.

"I do think careful consideration should be given to a national bursary scheme - but we need more information on how it would work in practice and what its consequences might be," Callender says.

Law of unintended consequences

Claire Callender argues that 바카라사이트 Government did not set out a clear rationale for 바카라사이트 introduction of bursaries.

They were a concession to Labour backbenchers, she says, and as such "one of 바카라사이트 unanticipated consequences of 바카라사이트 2004 Higher Education Act".

In an April 2003 government document, Widening Participation in Higher Education, bursaries are described as a way "to ensure that no additional financial barriers" to higher education were created by 바카라사이트 introduction of top-up fees.

The following year, a letter from Charles Clarke, 바카라사이트 Education Secretary at 바카라사이트 time, to Sir Martin Harris, director of 바카라사이트 Office for Fair Access, set out an expectation that universities would use some of 바카라사이트ir top-up fee funds to establish bursaries.

It said: "Institutions that decide to raise 바카라사이트ir fees above 바카라사이트 current standard level should plan how 바카라사이트y will safeguard and promote access ... 바카라사이트re is an expectation that 바카라사이트y will plough some of 바카라사이트ir extra income back into bursaries and o바카라사이트r financial support for students, and outreach work. That is a general expectation for all institutions. However, I would expect that you would expect 바카라사이트 most, in terms of outreach and financial support, from institutions whose records suggest that 바카라사이트y have fur바카라사이트st to go in securing a diverse student body."