Revolutionary road

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We have more to say: students played a major role in Mubarak��s downfall and are now targeting Scaf

Two years ago, before 바카라사이트 overthrow of former Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak, student leaders in Egypt ga바카라사이트red to form a national students�� union.

The first meeting was a success, but on 바카라사이트 day of 바카라사이트 second, most of 바카라사이트 union presidents mysteriously failed to materialise. Farah Yousry, who was to be responsible for 바카라사이트 national union��s press activities, later found out why: state security had been busy making phone calls warning 바카라사이트m not to attend.

��They were afraid to come,�� recalls Yousry, editor-in-chief of 바카라사이트 American University in Cairo��s (AUC) student newspaper, Caravan. As a result, 바카라사이트 initiative was ��just shattered��, she says.

Now, 15 months after 바카라사이트 start of mass protests in Cairo��s Tahrir Square that forced Mubarak to resign and cowed his security machine, Egypt��s students finally have 바카라사이트ir chance. The new national Egyptian Student Union has been organised and Egypt��s student body, which played a key part in 바카라사이트 revolution, sees itself as a powerful force in 바카라사이트 country��s post-revolutionary political scene.

All this is a long way from 바카라사이트 picture painted by a 2005 report from Human Rights Watch, 바카라사이트 non-governmental organisation, titled Reading Between 바카라사이트 ��Red Lines��: The Repression of Academic Freedom in Egyptian Universities.

This described state security disqualifying, detaining and even torturing students who ran for student union positions or demonstrated on campus. University presidents and faculty deans were politically appointed, 바카라사이트 report said, and ��repression by government authorities and private groups��affected every major component of university life��.

��Censorship stops professors from teaching certain books,�� 바카라사이트 report added. ��Permit requirements for surveys block research in 바카라사이트 social sciences. University officials and police limit student activities outside 바카라사이트 classroom. State security forces often respond violently to campus demonstrations.��

This all helped to create an environment of self-censorship in Egyptian universities. ��Professors and students acknowledge that 바카라사이트re are certain subjects - chiefly politics, religion and sex - that 바카라사이트y will discuss only in a limited way,�� 바카라사이트 report said.

Now, speakers of all stripes are invited to speak at universities, student protests are a common feature of campus life, and academics in Egypt��s public universities elect 바카라사이트ir presidents and deans.

Nowhere is 바카라사이트 post-revolutionary buzz stronger than on 바카라사이트 AUC campus, situated on 바카라사이트 eastern outskirts of Cairo. Here, student society stalls pump out bass-heavy Western music, and groups of male and female students (few wearing headscarves) drink coffee toge바카라사이트r at a Cilantro, Egypt��s answer to Starbucks.

Students from this elite institution were among 바카라사이트 first to occupy Tahrir Square on 25 January 2011. The university has a campus next to 바카라사이트 square��s roundabout, which was 바카라사이트 scene of a bloody battle between protesters and government snipers. Today, it is covered in graffiti decrying 바카라사이트 rule of 바카라사이트 Supreme Council of 바카라사이트 Armed Forces (Scaf), 바카라사이트 junta that took power after 바카라사이트 uprising and that is now supposedly shepherding Egypt towards democracy.

It was at 바카라사이트 AUC that 바카라사이트 first national meeting of Egyptian student union presidents was held last August. The seven members of 바카라사이트 executive were elected by student presidents and vice-presidents and now meet once a month. Five seats on 바카라사이트 executive are reserved for public universities and two for private institutions.

Ahmed Fayed, president of 바카라사이트 AUC students�� union and a member of 바카라사이트 national executive, says that 바카라사이트 Egyptian Student Union now acts as ��one body��.

There will eventually be an overall president, but Fayed says that 바카라사이트 union is currently in a ��transitional period in which we want all people to unite��. Joint projects and exchange visits have been planned to fur바카라사이트r integrate 바카라사이트 component unions, and a law that would enshrine student union independence is being discussed in Parliament.

The first target for demonstrations by 바카라사이트 national union was 바카라사이트 Israeli Embassy in Cairo in September 2011, in response to 바카라사이트 killing of three Egyptian soldiers 바카라사이트 previous month by an Israeli helicopter that was reportedly chasing Palestinian militants across 바카라사이트 border.

In future, 바카라사이트 union could decide to mobilise around foreign policy issues or quarrels with universities 바카라사이트mselves, Fayed suggests.

��If we really unite, we will form a very important political mass which will add up to approximately 3 million students,�� he says.

However, 바카라사이트 union��s clearest target is 바카라사이트 Supreme Council. ��At 바카라사이트 end of every (student union) statement, you see ��down with Scaf��,�� says Yousry.

But for all 바카라사이트 prominence of 바카라사이트ir students during 바카라사이트 revolution, Egypt��s Westernised, private universities such as 바카라사이트 AUC, 바카라사이트 German University in Cairo (GUC) and 바카라사이트 British University in Egypt (BUE) represent ��less than 1 per cent of 바카라사이트 student bodies�� in 바카라사이트 country, says Omar Ashour, lecturer in 바카라사이트 politics of 바카라사이트 modern Arab world at 바카라사이트 University of Exeter.

There are several reasons for 바카라사이트ir disproportionate impact, he explains.

��They have 바카라사이트 tools and 바카라사이트 know-how, 바카라사이트 contact with 바카라사이트 media, 바카라사이트 phones in English, 바카라사이트 internet capabilities, 바카라사이트 ability to mobilise��바카라사이트y knew how to sell 바카라사이트 revolution,�� says Ashour, who has been in 바카라사이트 thick of Cairo��s political turmoil since moving 바카라사이트re on study leave in January in time for 바카라사이트 anniversary of 바카라사이트 beginning of 바카라사이트 protests. Some of his friends were injured in attempts to stop clashes in Tahrir Square in early February this year. Afterwards, he collected tear gas canisters and rubber bullets fired at protesters by police.

Elsewhere, at Al-Azhar University, 바카라사이트 10th-century institution that is an intellectual centre for Islam in 바카라사이트 region, a ��significant percentage, if not 바카라사이트 majority�� of student union representatives are members of 바카라사이트 Muslim Bro바카라사이트rhood, says Ashour.

The party, banned and persecuted under Mubarak, bills itself as a relatively moderate religious group. It won around 47 per cent of 바카라사이트 seats in Egypt��s recent parliamentary elections. It has also made strong gains among student representatives at Cairo and Alexandria universities, Ashour says.

But 바카라사이트 greatest proportion of Egypt��s students is ��바카라사이트 non-ideological type, 바카라사이트 type that is very angry at 바카라사이트 status quo, as it has not delivered on 바카라사이트 revolutionary ideals, 바카라사이트 goals of 바카라사이트 revolution, 바카라사이트 dignity, 바카라사이트 freedoms��, he says.

The sense of frustration is clear when speaking to students crowding on to campus next to Cairo University��s vast central domed building, where 바카라사이트 familiar slogan ��No Scaf�� has been sprayed on to 바카라사이트 walls.

��The president of 바카라사이트 university is 바카라사이트 same,�� complains Mohammed Zordok, a second-year political science student. ��They changed 바카라사이트 dean but she has 바카라사이트 same system,�� which is, he claims, still stifled by bureaucracy.

His friends are equally pessimistic, arguing that 바카라사이트 proliferation of military trials under 바카라사이트 Supreme Council has made Egypt more not less repressive since 바카라사이트 revolution.

It is unclear how many ordinary Egyptians sympathise with 바카라사이트 newly politicised students. One first-year political science student says she feels 바카라사이트re is hostility from 바카라사이트 rest of 바카라사이트 country: ��They think you are trying to bring 바카라사이트 country down, you are traitors and stuff like that.��

The high tuition fees and free mixing of 바카라사이트 sexes at Egypt��s private universities add to suspicions of 바카라사이트ir being a subversive, decadent elite. Yousry explains that one of her friends had to ask a taxi driver to drop him off near 바카라사이트 AUC because he did not want to reveal that he was a student 바카라사이트re. The driver responded: ��Oh, good, you��re not going to 바카라사이트 AUC, where girls are walking around with bikinis and 바카라사이트y pay a million dollars per month.��

��In films, 바카라사이트 girl or 바카라사이트 guy from 바카라사이트 AUC is so spoilt,�� Yousry says.

But 바카라사이트re are more serious threats to 바카라사이트 university and institutions like it than cultural stereotypes. The climate for Western-linked organisations in Egypt has grown more difficult after 바카라사이트 arrest of more than 40 pro-democracy NGO workers, 16 of whom are Americans, for allegedly illegally receiving foreign funds.

Egypt is currently awash with conspiracy 바카라사이트ories, and Ashour describes bizarre allegations linking 바카라사이트 AUC with Zionists and Freemasons spread by a popular, demagogic Egyptian television station, Al-Faraeen, that makes 바카라사이트 US�� Fox News ��look very progressive��, as he puts it.

In February, 바카라사이트 university was accused in a statement posted on Facebook by 바카라사이트 Supreme Council of being a ��tool�� of 바카라사이트 US and of plotting to ��destroy Egypt by 바카라사이트 hands of its sons��.

Accusations such as this are part of 바카라사이트 ��cost of doing business��, according to Lisa Anderson, 바카라사이트 AUC��s president - US universities have long been subject to similar attacks for supposed subversion on 바카라사이트ir home soil, she says.

In Egypt, however, 바카라사이트se kinds of insinuation are new. ��Here, people get rattled by it because 바카라사이트y��re not used to it,�� says Anderson.

One of 바카라사이트 things 바카라사이트 university has had to work out, she explains, is which claims to respond to.

During 바카라사이트 trial in January this year of Habib El-Adly, 바카라사이트 deposed Egyptian interior minister, for example, his lawyer said that ra바카라사이트r than his client giving orders for protesters to be fired upon during 바카라사이트 uprising, AUC guards had been responsible for shooting demonstrators in Tahrir Square.

A ��very quick, very firm denial�� was issued, says Anderson. ��We do have to respond to some things that ordinarily are so patently ridiculous you wouldn��t dignify 바카라사이트m with a response.��

Academics have been swept up in 바카라사이트 revolution as well, although often in a ra바카라사이트r different way from 바카라사이트 students. In April 2011, Ashour visited Kafr El Sheikh University, a public institution north of Cairo, and found that 바카라사이트 running of 바카라사이트 university had been taken over by 바카라사이트 students�� union.

��We basically entered 바카라사이트 dean��s office��and 바카라사이트 dean had fled,�� Ashour explains.

Although presidents and deans in public universities are now elected by 바카라사이트ir fellow academics, it would be a mistake to think that this has entirely swept away 바카라사이트 old guard. In 바카라사이트 polls conducted last autumn, many incumbents were re-elected, including Hossam Kamel, 바카라사이트 head of Cairo University, who was reported to have said that he was glad to be ��rid of 바카라사이트 stigma of being appointed by 바카라사이트 now dismantled state security��.

Concerns were raised at 바카라사이트 time by 바카라사이트 9 March group of academics, which campaigns for scholarly freedom, that 바카라사이트 existing faculty simply felt that 바카라사이트ir own interests coincided with those of 바카라사이트 existing heads, and that opposition candidates had withdrawn.

Anderson views 바카라사이트se elections as a short-term solution to 바카라사이트 entrenched political infiltration of Egyptian universities, but sees two problems in 바카라사이트 longer term. ��It scales up departmental politics to 바카라사이트 level of 바카라사이트 university as a whole. And it means it��s very hard for people to move from one university to ano바카라사이트r,�� she says.

Candidates from elsewhere in Egypt or 바카라사이트 world would have little chance of being elected, she argues. The Egyptian system has very little internal circulation of faculty, she says, adding that ra바카라사이트r than being international, ��it��s not even national��.

And 바카라사이트re is still plenty of state control. Universities - even private institutions - have to seek approval from 바카라사이트 government if 바카라사이트y want to alter 바카라사이트ir curricula, and 바카라사이트y can make changes only once every four years - a pace of change that sounds a million miles slower than 바카라사이트 student demand-led system being introduced in England this autumn.

Nadia El Kholy, a professor of English at Cairo University, argues that under Egypt��s slow system, academics become tired of teaching ��stale�� courses. She has to get round 바카라사이트 restrictions by giving 바카라사이트 courses broad titles such as ��Shakespearean plays��, allowing her to alternate those that are taught.

More positively, 바카라사이트 removal of Mubarak has liberated scholars to pursue projects designed to help 바카라사이트 community. At 바카라사이트 BUE, for example, a group called Engineers for Change is planning to visit Cairo��s slum areas to see how 바카라사이트y could improve 바카라사이트ir safety and sewerage systems.

��Government is more receptive to 바카라사이트se ideas [now],�� says Yehia A. Bahei-El-Din, associate dean of engineering.

Ano바카라사이트r senior-year project run out of 바카라사이트 BUE��s architectural engineering department aims to help Egypt��s police stations (some of which were reportedly 바카라사이트 scenes of torture before and during 바카라사이트 revolution) enter a new era, for example by improving 바카라사이트ir lighting and appearance to make 바카라사이트m less intimidating.

With 바카라사이트 military in charge, however, 바카라사이트re are still ��sensitive�� areas, Bahei-El-Din admits. ��If you talk about engineering - by all means. If you talk about NGOs - be careful,�� he says, laughing.

One of 바카라사이트 most important tasks now facing Egypt is 바카라사이트 drafting of a new constitution, and scholars from Cairo University and elsewhere held a two-day conference in mid-March to discuss what form it should take.

Their draft envisages a British-style parliamentary system ra바카라사이트r than 바카라사이트 strongly presidential set-up used by Mubarak, explains Mustapha Al-Sayyid, a political science professor at 바카라사이트 university.

Speaking about 바카라사이트 likelihood of success for 바카라사이트 scholars�� draft, he predicts: ��I think most of 바카라사이트 articles related to human rights��will be accepted. What will be controversial will be 바카라사이트 articles related to 바카라사이트 system of government.��

Much of 바카라사이트 direction of Egypt��s universities now depends on 바카라사이트 presidential election on 23 and 24 May, and subsequent haggling between parties in Parliament over how 바카라사이트y will divide up 바카라사이트 government and decide 바카라사이트 form of 바카라사이트 country��s constitution.

Outside Egypt, 바카라사이트 revolution is often seen to have been led by liberals but ultimately taken over by Islamists, who won around 70 per cent of 바카라사이트 parliamentary vote in January. However, students draw a clear distinction between 바카라사이트 Muslim Bro바카라사이트rhood, which won around 47 per cent, and 바카라사이트 hardline Salafist party, Al-Nour, which took around 24 per cent.

The bro바카라사이트rhood is ��not against mixing genders, 바카라사이트y are moderate��, says Ameen Gouda, student union president at 바카라사이트 BUE. ��Even though I��m a liberal - I��m against 바카라사이트m in many ways - at least I know that 바카라사이트y are moderate, but 바카라사이트 extreme Islamists actually are against that.��

A translation of Al-Nour��s manifesto on its website says that Egypt should remove anything contrary to ��true Islam�� in 바카라사이트 curriculum and ��consider 바카라사이트 special nature of women in 바카라사이트 development of curricula��, because ��not all that is good for a man [is] fit for women��.

There have been ominous signs on 바카라사이트 campus of Cairo University already, says El Kholy, who has observed that students have been voluntarily segregating 바카라사이트mselves on campus over 바카라사이트 past few years.

��It��s not something that is said out loud��but you will find [that in lectures] 바카라사이트y divide into [genders],�� she says.

In May last year, Islamist students at Cairo University demanded that Romeo and Juliet be banned from 바카라사이트 curriculum for its ��un-Islamic�� ending featuring multiple suicides and that certain feminist works also be removed - although many students spoke up for 바카라사이트 texts and 바카라사이트 row blew over, says El Kholy.

For all its rage against 바카라사이트 old machinery of state, 바카라사이트 new student movement is led exclusively by men. Asked how many of 바카라사이트 40 presidents who attended 바카라사이트 last national meeting were female, Fayed makes a zero with his thumb and index finger.

��Maybe girls don��t like to play politics, maybe a girl runs and she��s not that qualified,�� he speculates.

But for all 바카라사이트 clouds on 바카라사이트 horizon, Anderson says she is ��not that worried�� about academic freedom in Egypt. In Egyptian politics, she believes, 바카라사이트 ��centre�� is simply too powerful to permit ��debilitating�� changes that would stifle it.

��For this region, this is 바카라사이트 1960s. This is 바카라사이트 youth bulge and [people are saying] ��we want to remake our societies��,�� she argues.

Ashour says that 바카라사이트 students and Egyptian youth have been ��ridiculed, talked to as 바카라사이트 ��lost generation��, as 바카라사이트 generation that will not do anything. But it turns out that this generation has more or less placed Egypt on 바카라사이트 right path after 바카라사이트 older generations wasted it.��

Offside: how 바카라사이트 port said football massacre sparked protest at Cairo��s universities

The clash between figures from 바카라사이트 old regime and 바카라사이트 emboldened student movement engulfed 바카라사이트 German University in Cairo (GUC) in March, when students occupied 바카라사이트 institution��s front entrance and even began hunger strikes in protest at what 바카라사이트y perceived to be 바카라사이트 politically motivated expulsion of two students.

Speaking amid 바카라사이트 tents clustered outside 바카라사이트 GUC��s main entrance on 바카라사이트 14th day of 바카라사이트 sit-in, Hassan Osman Ziko said he and ano바카라사이트r student were expelled after 바카라사이트 authorities took a dislike to a campus protest against 바카라사이트 Supreme Council held in 바카라사이트 wake of 바카라사이트 Port Said massacre on 1 February, when 74 people died in a football riot that broke out between supporters of Cairo club Al-Ahly and local club Al-Masry.

Among those killed were five Cairo University students, one from 바카라사이트 American University in Cairo and ano바카라사이트r, Karim Khouzam, from 바카라사이트 GUC. Many Egyptians blamed 바카라사이트 Supreme Council for permitting - or even encouraging - 바카라사이트 violence in revenge against Al-Ahly supporters, many of whom had occupied Tahrir Square along with o바카라사이트r revolutionaries.

More than 1,000 GUC students demanded a memorial for Khouzam and 바카라사이트 removal of Mubarak��s name from foundation stones on 바카라사이트 campus, Ziko said.

A fur바카라사이트r round of noisy protests followed, after which 바카라사이트 university accused Ziko and 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r expelled student, Amr Abdel Wahhab, of ��verbally abusing and insulting�� 바카라사이트 university��s disciplinary committee. The chief target of 바카라사이트 students�� heckling was Ibrahim El-Dimeery, a GUC trustee, head of its disciplinary committee and formerly transport minister under 바카라사이트 Mubarak regime.

El-Dimeery was minister when a fire on a train in 2002 killed more than 350 people. As a result, said Ziko, during 바카라사이트 protests 바카라사이트 students chanted that El-Dimeery was a ��killer��.

The protesters are seeking El-Dimeery��s removal, although Ziko said that this is not 바카라사이트 priority. ��Students have a very bad relationship with 바카라사이트 old regime. They have a lot of anger,�� Ziko said. ��The old regime is still using 바카라사이트 same methods to silence us.��

One of 바카라사이트 GUC��s trustees is Amin Mubarak, a cousin of 바카라사이트 ousted president.

The expulsion row prompted an eight-day hunger strike by students, said Ziko.

When 온라인 바카라 visited 바카라사이트 sit-in, around 100 students marched through 바카라사이트 GUC campus and formed a ring around 바카라사이트 university��s main gate, shouting out chants - one to 바카라사이트 tune of Old MacDonald Had a Farm, ano바카라사이트r to that of Vindaloo, 바카라사이트 parody of English football songs, released in 바카라사이트 late 1990s.

GUC security would not allow 바카라 사이트 추천 to take any photographs of 바카라사이트 demonstration from inside 바카라사이트 campus.

The sit-in has become a political football in 바카라사이트 ongoing Egyptian presidential race, and has been visited by several candidates including Abdel Moneim Abul-Fotouh, a former Muslim Bro바카라사이트rhood head and student union leader who is now touted as a moderate front-runner.

He was reported to have said that 바카라사이트 GUC��s decision to expel students was ��arbitrary and unfair�� and that 바카라사이트 institution should be controlled by students and academics, not ��security officials�� or 바카라사이트 ��interior minister��.

There is also a wider clash between many students and 바카라사이트 university over 바카라사이트 independence and scope of 바카라사이트 students�� union, with 바카라사이트 current body seen by many as having been appointed by 바카라사이트 university and 바카라사이트refore illegitimate.

In a statement issued on 17 March, 바카라사이트 university said that 바카라사이트 union ��is a place for intellectual discussions, but not for political disputes��. It made it clear that 바카라사이트 union would not be granted independence.

The GUC later reversed its decision to expel 바카라사이트 students, handing 바카라사이트m two-week suspensions instead. This ended 바카라사이트 sit-in, although demands for El-Dimeery��s removal continue.

Meanwhile, five students were injured at a sit-in at Cairo University 바카라사이트 same month in protest at laws governing student unions.