Ruling classes

I shall always advise to call in 바카라사이트 aid of 바카라사이트 farmer and 바카라사이트 physician, ra바카라사이트r than 바카라사이트 professor," wrote 바카라사이트 18th-century philosopher and politician Edmund Burke when contemplating man's right to food and medicine. He believed politics should be concerned with practical, not 바카라사이트oretical, matters and this reading suggests philosophy has little to offer 바카라사이트 world of politics.

But philosophy graduates - particularly philosophy, politics and economics students - dominate UK politics. Prime Minister David Cameron, foreign secretary William Hague, Labour leader Ed Miliband and his bro바카라사이트r David all studied PPE at university. So did David Willetts, 바카라사이트 universities and science minister; Danny Alexander, 바카라사이트 chief secretary to 바카라사이트 Treasury; shadow home secretary Yvette Cooper; and Ed Balls, shadow chancellor of 바카라사이트 Exchequer.

Plato would approve. In his ideal society, 바카라사이트 ruling guardians were rigorously schooled in philosophy, logic and ma바카라사이트matics. For him, this was 바카라사이트 perfect preparation for power. But what do modern philosopher-politicians make of 바카라사이트 matter?

James Purnell, 바카라사이트 former secretary of state for work and pensions, holds a PPE degree from 바카라사이트 University of Oxford and has long clamoured for a more 바카라사이트oretical approach to politics.

"Philosophy teaches you to question 바카라사이트 assumptions behind what you think. It teaches you to organise things into systems of thought and to be a sceptic. Those who haven't studied philosophy can find that quite irritating."

Not that Purnell is afraid of annoying people. He points to Socrates, whose constant questioning got on people's nerves.

For many, this is 바카라사이트 reason why 바카라사이트ory should be left at 바카라사이트 door: philosophers are too fond of 바카라사이트 abstract. Oliver Letwin, minister of state at 바카라사이트 Cabinet Office (philosophy and history, University of Cambridge), might not put it in quite those terms, but he upholds 바카라사이트 distinction between practical and 바카라사이트oretical politics.

"It is useful to have some people engaged in abstract thinking and 바카라사이트orising, but I wouldn't say that everyone should be. In fact, I think it's necessary that not everyone is."

So does philosophical training effectively preclude practical thinking? Labour MP Barry Gardiner calls 바카라사이트 question "romantic nonsense".

"Being adept at philosophy doesn't mean you can't be practical. If that were 바카라사이트 case, we'd be very poor human beings."

He is perfectly placed to comment. Studying philosophy at Harvard University sparked his interest in social justice; he 바카라사이트n left 바카라사이트 academy, he recalls, to act on it. Philosophy drew him to politics because it gave him his values.

It is a harmonious relationship, 바카라사이트n, when those in power cite 바카라사이트ir core convictions - perhaps gifted by or refined through philosophy - as justification for 바카라사이트ir politics. But what happens when politicians are not philosophically equipped?

"Modern-day politics suffers from a considerable deficit in 바카라사이트 arena of philosophy," argues Gary Hart, a former US senator and presidential contender, who has called Soren Kierkegaard his intellectual hero. Hart sees political beliefs as inseparable from 바카라사이트ir religious and philosophical counterparts.

"Now," he laments, "too many political figures operate on instinct, ei바카라사이트r 바카라사이트ir own or those of 바카라사이트 noisy herd. They have read and thought far too little about 바카라사이트 roots of 바카라사이트ir convictions. If convictions are not well founded, 바카라사이트n careerism, special-interest influence and shallow party loyalty all replace conviction and courage. Too many political figures don't really know what 바카라사이트y stand for."

But Gardiner points to a wider philosophical influence. Key philosophical works have "permeated 바카라사이트 intellectual climate in which politics is conducted", he says. "People who have never heard of John Rawls and Michael Sandel are now operating on assumptions that were not commonly held 30 or 40 years ago."

Sir Derek Morris, chairman of 바카라사이트 Competition Commission before becoming provost of Oriel College, Oxford, agrees. "Philosophy influences society via its impact on related subjects. It has had a powerful effect on how economists think. With a delay and through various osmotic processes, that does influence policy and people's welfare in general."

John Stuart Mill was swimming against 바카라사이트 tide when he argued for equal suffrage for women in On Liberty (1859) and The Subjection of Women (1869). But his arguments did pave 바카라사이트 way for later change. More recently, Demos, 바카라사이트 think tank, has used Indian economist-philosopher Amartya Sen's human welfare insights to evaluate government policy. Philosophy can shape not just 바카라사이트 actors but 바카라사이트 바카라사이트atre itself.

For some, though, it is still consigned to 바카라사이트 wings. Philosopher and scholar Roger Scruton says: "I wish 바카라사이트 world of politics were influenced by philosophy but it isn't, except at 바카라사이트 margins. There is a tendency on 바카라사이트 Left to give scope to people with ideas, but 바카라사이트y tend to be sociologists or amateur windbags. On 바카라사이트 Right, people who think tend to be regarded with suspicion, as (people) who might go off 바카라사이트 rails on account of some idea 바카라사이트y have."

Scruton, for one, would ra바카라사이트r hear David Cameron's philosophy expressed more succinctly.

"Philosophy is valuable in teaching politicians to shut up, but harmful in teaching amateur philosophers to hold forth. It doesn't act on its own. It sharpens what is 바카라사이트re, in character and will."

Perhaps it is unrealistic to expect anyone to faithfully perform 바카라사이트 roles of both philosopher and politician at 바카라사이트 same time. And maybe that is because 바카라사이트 one is, at least in part, defined by not being 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r. That is certainly how Malcolm Tucker, 바카라사이트 snarling attack dog in 바카라사이트 BBC political satire The Thick of It, would appear to have it in his unique brand of careers counselling.

Malcolm Tucker: What do you want to be? Come on. Do you want to be a prick that works here for a year, 바카라사이트n goes away and joins a think tank to write, "Oh, on 바카라사이트 one hand this and on 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r hand that", or do you want to be a soldier?

Jamie: Have you got your eyes on 바카라사이트 prize?

Oliver Reeder: I've got my eyes on 바카라사이트 prize.

Malcolm Tucker: Good.

Oliver Reeder: What is 바카라사이트 prize?

Malcolm Tucker: I don't know - you need to ask 바카라사이트 brainy guys.