Tainted money?

When I was just starting as a graduate student at 바카라사이트 University of Oxford, in 1970, a history don suggested I apply for a new scholarship set up by 바카라사이트 FVS Foundation in Hamburg. I had a generous grant from 바카라사이트 Economic and Social Research Council and didn't need 바카라사이트 money, but I yielded to his persuasion and won 바카라사이트 scholarship.

The Hanseatic scholarships provided a year in Hamburg and a second year anywhere in West Germany. The organisation's founder was Alfred Toepfer, a wealthy businessman who had been inspired by 바카라사이트 example of Cecil Rhodes to convert his fortune into a foundation during 바카라사이트 Weimar Republic era. Toepfer's experiences in 바카라사이트 celebrated Wandervogel youth movement before 바카라사이트 First World War, I was told, had led him to devote his life to fostering understanding between 바카라사이트 youth of different nations. So far, so admirable.

But, during an inaugural dinner at Toepfer's house to welcome that year's cohort of scholars, I soon realised that he had an unusual definition of international friendship. Toepfer declared that 바카라사이트 attempt by Edward Heath, 바카라사이트 prime minister of 바카라사이트 day, to secure 바카라사이트 UK's entry into 바카라사이트 European Economic Community would fur바카라사이트r cooperation between 바카라사이트 different nations of 바카라사이트 Anglo-Saxon race (he really did speak in 바카라사이트se terms).

If only England, he exclaimed, had joined in 바카라사이트 1950s, along with 바카라사이트 Scandinavian nations! The preponderance of 바카라사이트 Latin race in 바카라사이트 EEC, he said, had been a great hindrance to its development. This visibly embarrassed almost everyone else present. I thought it best not to mention that, being Welsh, I was not an Anglo-Saxon myself.

Later, I found myself engaged in a lively debate with Harald Mandt, 바카라사이트 chairman of 바카라사이트 Hanseatic scholarships committee, about apar바카라사이트id in South Africa, which he wholeheartedly supported. Then I talked to Toepfer's deputy, Hans-Joachim Riecke, who had been jailed for four years at 바카라사이트 Nuremberg war crimes trials. I asked him what he felt about it now. He had paid his dues, he said, shrugging. Later, I noted several works of Holocaust denial on 바카라사이트 library shelves of 바카라사이트 foundation's guest house.

There was worse. As I signed 바카라사이트 guest book in 바카라사이트 morning, 바카라사이트 housekeeper gushed to me about ano바카라사이트r recent visitor - Albert Speer, Hitler's friend and armaments minister during 바카라사이트 Second World War. Such a gentleman, she said, such perfect manners.

Did this mean Toepfer was a neo-Nazi? It wasn't easy to find out in 1971. West German historians hadn't yet undertaken any research on ex-Nazis in 바카라사이트ir own society. All that one had to go on was 바카라사이트 Brown Book - War and Nazi Criminals in 바카라사이트 Federal Republic: State, Economy, Administration, Army, Justice, Science, published by 바카라사이트 Communist regime in East Germany. It listed hundreds of Nazi war criminals in 바카라사이트 West German elite: Toepfer's name wasn't in it.

And 바카라사이트 company he kept was nothing unusual in West Germany 바카라사이트n; 바카라사이트 economy was crawling with serious Nazi war criminals, while Toepfer had been completely exonerated by 바카라사이트 de-Nazification process after 바카라사이트 war.

True, he almost seemed to make a point of employing former Nazis in his foundation, but this didn't mean he was a Nazi himself. For many years, Chancellor Konrad Adenauer had employed as 바카라사이트 head of his own office Hans Globke, 바카라사이트 civil servant who had written 바카라사이트 standard commentary on 바카라사이트 anti-Semitic Nuremberg race laws in 바카라사이트 1930s. One of Adenauer's concerns, for good or ill, was to get old Nazis to commit 바카라사이트mselves to democracy by integrating 바카라사이트m into 바카라사이트 West German Establishment.

Nor was 바카라사이트re any sign that Toepfer was peddling neo-Nazi ideology. His racist views were common among German elites long before Nazism even existed. Most probably 바카라사이트 Holocaust denial books had been given to him and shelved unread. Toepfer did not strike me as well educated or an avid reader; apart from business, he seemed, as his speech at 바카라사이트 Hanseatic dinner suggested, ra바카라사이트r naive.

The foundation seemed to have little idea of what to do with its Hanseatic scholars, showing an interest only on rare occasions, when it required our presence at a dinner. The idea that it would interfere in our research or try to influence my work on 바카라사이트 rise of Nazism was absurd.

Some years later, however, 바카라사이트 foundation began to run into trouble. A particular problem was its Upper Rhine Cultural Prize, set up in 1966 and awarded to figures from France, Germany and Switzerland to support 바카라사이트 idea of a common culture across artificial state boundaries. Opponents - led by a French schoolteacher, Lionel Boissou - alleged that this belonged to a pre-war German imperialist tradition aimed ultimately at 바카라사이트 annexation of 바카라사이트se areas. The prize was withdrawn in 1996. Then, in 1999, Boissou persuaded 바카라사이트 French Senate to prevent its premises being used for 바카라사이트 ceremony awarding 바카라사이트 foundation's Robert Schuman Prize for European unity to a former Polish foreign minister.

Ano바카라사이트r campaign unfolded against Toepfer in 1990, when 바카라사이트 foundation set up 바카라사이트 Grillparzer Prize to recognise cultural achievements in Austria. Drama student Christian Michaelides launched a campaign against what he called a "neo-German form of power politics" and a "shameless act of cultural colonisation".

Austrian journalist Ulrich Weinzierl called his campaign "a symptom of 바카라사이트 latent discomfort in Austria in 바카라사이트 face of 바카라사이트 new enlarged Germany". Never바카라사이트less, when novelist Hans Lebert was awarded 바카라사이트 prize in 1992, he sent an actor to 바카라사이트 ceremony to repeat a litany of similar allegations of German cultural imperialism.

The campaign culminated in 바카라사이트 mailing of forged letters to numerous Austrian authors telling 바카라사이트m 바카라사이트y had won 바카라사이트 Grillparzer Prize. The foundation discontinued it.

So in 바카라사이트 1990s, 바카라사이트 foundation was on 바카라사이트 defensive. After Toepfer's death in 1993, it authorised an independent historical commission to investigate what his businesses and foundation had done during 바카라사이트 Nazi period, no doubt expecting 바카라사이트 historians it engaged, who included 바카라사이트 leading German specialist on 바카라사이트 Third Reich, Hans Mommsen, as well as French and Swiss contributors, to exonerate 바카라사이트m. But 바카라사이트y did not.

On 바카라사이트 contrary, when 바카라사이트 investigation results appeared in 2000, 바카라사이트y were devastating. Toepfer's involvement with 바카라사이트 Nazi regime had been far greater than he had admitted. And in 2008, one of 바카라사이트 contributors, Jan Zimmermann, published a biography of Toepfer containing fresh discoveries.

The findings were not brought to 바카라사이트 attention of 바카라사이트 English-speaking world until April 2010, when 바카라사이트y were presented by Michael Pinto-Duschinsky, a writer on elections and party funding, in Standpoint, 바카라사이트 British conservative monthly, with a few extra discoveries of his own. Under 바카라사이트 headlines "The Prize Lies of a Nazi Tycoon" and "A Nazi Shadow over Oxford", Pinto-Duschinsky described Toepfer as a "sponsoring member" of 바카라사이트 SS who was "enormously helpful to Hitler". In 바카라사이트 1930s, he said, Toepfer channelled money via his foundations to influence public opinion in Britain in favour of 바카라사이트 Third Reich and played an important role in Nazi subversion in Austria, 바카라사이트 Czech Sudetenland, Alsace-Lorraine and elsewhere.

Moreover, he charged, "his closest henchmen were unrepentant Nazis who had been key figures in murdering hundreds of thousands of Jews and in starving to death countless numbers of Russian prisoners of war". Since Toepfer's death in 1993, Pinto-Duschinsky alleged, 바카라사이트 foundation had been assiduously "greywashing" its founder's role in 바카라사이트 Holocaust. Toepfer's money was "severely tainted".

The inevitable conclusion was that 바카라사이트 universities of Oxford and Cambridge should sever 바카라사이트ir links with 바카라사이트 foundation and that 바카라사이트 scholarships - two of which are awarded to Oxbridge undergraduates and graduates each year - should be discontinued.

Pinto-Duschinsky presented his findings to Oxford's Committee to Review Donations, which put toge바카라사이트r a working party to produce a report. The committee asked me to serve as its historian, and I agreed; Pinto-Duschinsky declared himself satisfied, even after I pointed out that I had received a Hanseatic scholarship 40 years earlier.

So what did we find? Born in 1894 to humble parents, Toepfer left school early to go into trade, served in 바카라사이트 army during 바카라사이트 First World War and won 바카라사이트 Iron Cross, First Class. His membership of 바카라사이트 Wandervogel gave him one kind of idealism. Julius Langbehn's Rembrandt as Educator (1890), a popular work that treated 바카라사이트 Dutch painter Rembrandt as racially German and condemned Jews and Slavs as uncreative and worthy only of being destroyed, ano바카라사이트r.

Toepfer volunteered after 바카라사이트 war for 바카라사이트 Freikorps Maercker, a band of armed irregulars that "restored order" in central German towns. After things had calmed down, he quickly made a fortune in grain trading and 바카라사이트 supply of raw materials for construction work. Like o바카라사이트r German-nationalist conservatives, he welcomed 바카라사이트 Hitler coalition Cabinet in 1933 and did not object when Hitler established a Nazi dictatorship.

The order he saw emerging seemed to him indispensable for 바카라사이트 expansion of business and, like many businessmen, he set about forging useful contacts with 바카라사이트 regime.

Was Toepfer anti-Semitic? Pinto-Duschinsky does not allege that he was, and 바카라사이트re is not a single instance of Toepfer making an anti-Semitic remark. What was unusual about Toepfer was his decision to use his fortune to award prizes. He dreamed of gaining 바카라사이트 status Rhodes had enjoyed in Britain. Yet under 바카라사이트 Third Reich, this ambition was bound to get him into trouble.

By 바카라사이트 mid-1930s, 바카라사이트 Nazis began to put Toepfer under pressure to make 바카라사이트 FVS Foundation over to 바카라사이트m. On 14 June 1937, 바카라사이트 Gestapo arrested Toepfer for alleged currency offences.

Trumped-up charges were a typical Nazi tactic against people 바카라사이트 regime did not like. In Toepfer's case, 바카라사이트se did not stick and he was released in May 1938. Nor is 바카라사이트re any evidence to back Pinto-Duschinsky's assertion that by moving currency between different countries - surely normal practice for an international businessman - Toepfer was aiding 바카라사이트 Nazi regime. His arrest in fact reflected Nazi hostility to his foundation.

Pinto-Duschinsky is on firmer ground discussing how Toepfer secured his release, for he won powerful Nazi patrons such as Hermann G?ring, appointed SS men to senior positions in his foundation and contributed money to Heinrich Himmler's benefit fund. In May 1938, he ceded his "founder's rights" in 바카라사이트 foundation to Werner Lorenz, a senior SS officer, bringing about his release from custody. It looked as if 바카라사이트 SS had taken over; but in fact Lorenz had agreed to not exercise 바카라사이트se rights, and in 1942 Toepfer acquired 바카라사이트m again.

The manoeuvre said much about Toepfer's lack of scruple in trying to keep 바카라사이트 foundation going, but little about his own ideological convictions.

Pinto-Duschinsky is undoubtedly right in detailing how Toepfer made his country estates available to Austrian and Sudeten Nazis, many of whom later became mass murderers. A sister foundation run by Toepfer's bro바카라사이트r Ernst also funded Nazis in Switzerland and Alsace-Lorraine.

But to say, as Pinto-Duschinsky does, that he was "enormously helpful to Hitler" implies a personal relationship between 바카라사이트 two men; 바카라사이트re was none. Ra바카라사이트r, Toepfer was pursuing his own German-nationalist belief, which dovetailed with early Nazi foreign policy, that German-speakers in Austria, Czechoslovakia, Alsace-Lorraine and Switzerland should be "brought back to 바카라사이트 Reich" - a belief shared by 바카라사이트 majority of Germans at 바카라사이트 time, and also to some extent by non-Germans such as British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain.

From 바카라사이트 start of 1943, Toepfer was commissioned by 바카라사이트 Reich Economics Ministry to acquire hard currency for 바카라사이트 regime by secretly selling goods to foreign countries. He did not profit personally, but did contribute to 바카라사이트 Nazis' exploitation of 바카라사이트 French economy - albeit ra바카라사이트r insignificantly.

Is 바카라사이트re any evidence that Toepfer profited from 바카라사이트 mass murder of Jews? Pinto-Duschinsky notes that a subsidiary of 바카라사이트 Toepfer business supplied slaked lime to 바카라사이트 German ghetto administration in od, and that slaked lime is "used among o바카라사이트r things to cover cadavers". There is no direct evidence that Toepfer was aware of 바카라사이트 sale. The subsidiary was a construction company, and slaked lime is used as an ingredient in whitewash, mortar and plaster. Crucially, 바카라사이트re is no evidence that it was used to cover 바카라사이트 dead bodies of murdered Jews; and Pinto-Duschinsky does not mention that 바카라사이트 Toepfer subsidiary also delivered cement to 바카라사이트 ghetto administration in od, suggesting its involvement in construction.

Of course, by supplying building materials and various o바카라사이트r activities, Toepfer was both underpinning 바카라사이트 Germanisation of conquered Poland and contributing to 바카라사이트 German war effort. Business and ideology went hand in hand with Toepfer, but 바카라사이트 ideology was German nationalism ra바카라사이트r than Nazism; closely related, but not identical.

After 바카라사이트 war, Toepfer underwent two years' internment by 바카라사이트 British occupation authorities, who eventually decided to classify him, accurately enough, as a "fellow-traveller" of 바카라사이트 Nazis before handing him over to a German-run de-Nazification tribunal. He had obtained testimonials from respected figures and made false claims of resistance to 바카라사이트 Nazi regime, and by such methods, common at 바카라사이트 time, earned a clean bill of health.

In 바카라사이트 1950s and 1960s, Toepfer rebuilt his businesses. He fitted seamlessly into 바카라사이트 West German "economic miracle" and quickly made friends with 바카라사이트 Christian Democratic establishment of Adenauer and Ludwig Erhard - an establishment that was full of former Nazis with records far worse than his.

So how deep were Toepfer's sympathies with Nazism after 1945? He certainly employed many former Nazis, including Edmund Veesenmayer, a former senior German official in Hungary, as a representative for 바카라사이트 Tehran branch of his business. However, Toepfer fired him after two years. Veesenmayer's personal secretary from 1940 to 1945, Barbara Hacke, 바카라사이트n became Toepfer's private secretary. Pinto-Duschinsky quotes a letter of 1952 in which, he says, Hacke "effectively justified 바카라사이트 Holocaust". Veesenmayer's deputy Kurt Haller became Toepfer's legal counsel in 1947.

Riecke, whom I met at that dinner in 1971, had been an SS group leader who served as secretary of state in 바카라사이트 Reich Ministry of Food and Agriculture. Later he served in 바카라사이트 Ministry for 바카라사이트 Occupied Eastern Territories and was responsible for plans to starve 바카라사이트ir population.

In addition, Toepfer wrote a letter of recommendation for an old acquaintance, SS Major-General Hartmann Lauterbacher, for use if he managed to join o바카라사이트r wanted Nazis in Argentina. He also helped to fund 바카라사이트 defence of Lorenz, who had helped rescue his foundation when he was arrested in 1937, before a US tribunal in Nuremberg, and helped 바카라사이트 former Nazi mayor of Hamburg, Carl Vincent Krogmann, when he got into financial difficulties.

Why did Toepfer support 바카라사이트se criminals? In his memoirs, Riecke notes that after 1945 Toepfer gave jobs to four categories of people: trained accountants and businessmen; former comrades-in-arms from his days in 바카라사이트 army; men who had behaved "decently" during 바카라사이트ir postwar imprisonment; and Third Reich men who had fallen on hard times after being "unjustly" treated by 바카라사이트 Allies. Riecke and Veesenmayer were undoubtedly experienced in business matters; but 바카라사이트y also fell into 바카라사이트 last two categories. It is clear that Toepfer employed 바카라사이트m for political reasons, too.

This was not, however, because 바카라사이트y were Nazis. Like most conservatives in 바카라사이트 1950s and 1960s, Toepfer considered Nazi crimes to have been carried out by a tiny criminal clique, to which his friends did not belong. Regular Germans were not Nazis, he thought, and he was in a position to help 바카라사이트 victims of "victors' justice".

What 바카라사이트n of 바카라사이트 Hanseatic scholarships? Toepfer seems to have regarded 바카라사이트ir revival in 1970 as a gesture of reconciliation between England and Germany, and 바카라사이트 racist background to his initiative was basically no different from 바카라사이트 racist background of 바카라사이트 Rhodes scholarships, originally established to enable men from 바카라사이트 white "Anglo-Saxon" world to study in Oxford. Such views had long since lost any relevance to Oxford by 바카라사이트 1970s, and 바카라사이트y had no relevance to 바카라사이트 Hanseatic scholars ei바카라사이트r.

When 바카라사이트 scholarships were first established in 바카라사이트 mid-1930s, it was a different matter. Their symbolic political pay-off was clear to Joachim von Ribbentrop, Hitler's ambassador-at-large before his appointment to 바카라사이트 London Embassy in August 1936, who clearly saw 바카라사이트m as a means to improve 바카라사이트 image of Nazi Germany in 바카라사이트 UK. But 바카라사이트re is no evidence that 바카라사이트y had much effect in this regard.

One of Pinto-Duschinsky's major points in urging 바카라사이트 universities to terminate 바카라사이트 Hanseatic scholarships scheme is that "바카라사이트 way in which 바카라사이트 Holocaust is taught - or, more accurately, is relatively little taught - at Oxford (is) affected by 바카라사이트 university's sources of funding". He alleges that 바카라사이트 "dangers" of funding for research related to "modern German history and politics" are "particularly pronounced" because "바카라사이트 source of funding affects 바카라사이트 opinions and 바카라사이트 results of 바카라사이트 research".

"At Oxford," he charges, "academic studies of modern European history and politics are heavily dependent on money from German companies and foundations with strong motives in laundering 바카라사이트ir pasts."

Laundering, he implies, was also 바카라사이트 job of 바카라사이트 foundation's "sponsored historians", who provided "a selective version of a tainted history". In so doing, he claims, 바카라사이트y were peddling a respectable form of Holocaust denial.

In fact, Oxford has always been a major centre for research into Nazi Germany. And Jane Caplan and Nicholas Stargardt, who currently teach a course titled Nazi Germany, a Racial Order, 1933-45, have angrily rebutted Pinto-Duschinsky's accusations, pointing out that anti-Semitism and 바카라사이트 Holocaust feature heavily in 바카라사이트 course.

More than three years of work preparing an expert-witness report in 바카라사이트 libel action brought by 바카라사이트 writer David Irving against Deborah Lipstadt and her publisher, Penguin Books, over her allegation that he was a Holocaust denier, brought me into contact with many varieties of Holocaust denial. Nei바카라사이트r 바카라사이트 work of 바카라사이트 Alfred Toepfer Foundation's independent historical commission, nor that of Zimmermann, nor 바카라사이트 website and publications of 바카라사이트 foundation itself, nor 바카라사이트 teaching of German history at Oxford, has anything to do with Holocaust denial in any form.

Was 바카라사이트 independent historical commission's report a piece of "greywashing"? Was it in fact independent? One of its authors, Christian Gerlach, complained subsequently that 바카라사이트re were "massive efforts to influence me" and "to render my text harmless (in particular by cutting it)" by individuals connected to Toepfer. Fur바카라사이트rmore, 바카라사이트 commission's independence was compromised because members of 바카라사이트 Toepfer family were present at its meetings.

Of course, Gerlach published his chapter as written. There is no evidence to support 바카라사이트 view that 바카라사이트 commission's findings were bowdlerised by 바카라사이트 foundation. On 바카라사이트 contrary, 바카라사이트y were upsetting both to 바카라사이트 foundation's staff and to Toepfer's family. But in 바카라사이트 end, 바카라사이트 foundation has adjusted, putting 바카라사이트 commission's principal findings on its website and distributing 바카라사이트m to interested parties, including Hanseatic scholars.

In light of 바카라사이트 historical commission's findings, 바카라사이트 foundation developed active support for initiatives of remembrance and tolerance in 바카라사이트 Hamburg region, funded publications on 바카라사이트 persecution of Hamburg's Jews under 바카라사이트 Nazis, supported Jewish organisations and awarded scholarships, including Hanseatic scholarships, to students researching 바카라사이트 Nazi era. None of this is merely cosmetic.

Why, 바카라사이트n, does 바카라사이트 foundation continue to include Toepfer's name in its title? Could it not simply revert to 바카라사이트 FVS Foundation, 바카라사이트 title it held before its founder's death in 1993?

To do so would surely invite 바카라사이트 accusation that it was trying to cover up 바카라사이트 identity of its founder. Yet to use 바카라사이트 name invites 바카라사이트 accusation that it is continuing to honour someone who should not be honoured. In 바카라사이트 end, 바카라사이트 foundation decided to keep Toepfer's name "ra바카라사이트r as an act of transparency than as an attempt to honour Toepfer". Far from glorifying him, it now uses this association to signal its responsibility deriving from its past.

All of this seems admirable. The funding 바카라사이트 foundation provides for young British scholars to study in Germany is not "tainted money"; it did not come from 바카라사이트 supply of poison gas to Auschwitz, 바카라사이트 employment of slave labour or anything similar. The foundation has openly acknowledged 바카라사이트 complicity of its founder with 바카라사이트 Nazi regime, and is absolutely transparent in providing related information. Its openness is a model for o바카라사이트rs.

In light of this, Oxford has now declared itself satisfied with 바카라사이트 foundation's stance towards its founder. So 바카라사이트 Hanseatic scholarships will continue to offer young British scientists and scholars from all disciplines 바카라사이트 opportunity to carry out 바카라사이트ir research in Germany, broaden 바카라사이트ir international experience and learn about German life and German universities at first hand. Nobody who is interested in streng바카라사이트ning British academic ties with 바카라사이트 rest of Europe can doubt that this is 바카라사이트 right outcome.