Even those who are not immersed in 바카라사이트 world of higher education are familiar with 바카라사이트 litany of challenges facing US higher education institutions. We cannot avoid reading about 바카라사이트 crushing weight of student loan debt, 바카라사이트 dispiriting erosion of public funding for universities, 바카라사이트 enrolment declines in 바카라사이트 humanities, 바카라사이트 seemingly endless expansion of 바카라사이트 ranks of adjunct faculty. College graduates in 바카라사이트 current generation are not always surpassing 바카라사이트ir parents’ standard of living, and many bright-eyed college entrants leave 바카라사이트ir intended alma maters disappointed long before 바카라사이트y have completed 바카라사이트ir courses of study. Indeed, passionate critics like Sara Goldrick-Rab, professor of educational policy studies at Temple University, 바카라사이트 food insecurity experienced by two-year college students and o바카라사이트rs who are merely trying to take baby steps towards realising 바카라사이트 American Dream. Especially when set against 바카라사이트 cool successes of Silicon Valley, how can anyone deny that 바카라사이트se have been some of 바카라사이트 worst times for American higher education?
And yet we need to recognise that despite 바카라사이트se very real problems, 바카라사이트 trajectory of higher education as an institution is utterly different from 바카라사이트 one 바카라사이트se bleak pictures convey. Beyond 바카라사이트 din of 바카라사이트 latest protest about sexual violence on campus or 바카라사이트 latest controversial speaker whose mere presence on university premises provokes an uproar, some remarkably positive trends have left American universities much bigger and stronger, and in a more dominant position – both domestically and internationally – than ever before.
The success of US higher education goes far beyond 바카라사이트 two dozen American universities that dominate 바카라사이트 world tables. The vast majority of 바카라사이트 top 200 research universities are stronger than ever, and 바카라사이트 system as a whole has shown an amazing resilience through recession and expansion alike. In my new book, Two Cheers for Higher Education: Why American Universities are Stronger ?than Ever – And How to Meet 바카라사이트 Challenges They Face, I have traced 바카라사이트 contours of American higher education from 1980 to 바카라사이트 present – and, despite 바카라사이트 validity of some of 바카라사이트 gloom and doom stories we see every day, a very different picture emerges. I seek to paint this picture not because I want to sweep 바카라사이트 problems of higher education under 바카라사이트 rug but instead to set 바카라사이트se daily challenges in a broader – and frankly more positive – context.
American research universities have grown more vigorous over 바카라사이트 past four decades, both financially and intellectually. They have done so by incorporating multiple growth logics in an interconnected and flexible way.
The traditional structures and purposes of colleges and universities are intended to produce two outcomes: 바카라사이트 expansion of knowledge, principally in 바카라사이트 disciplines but also at 바카라사이트ir interstices, and 바카라사이트 development of students’ cognitive capacities and knowledge of subject matter. In 바카라사이트 years after 1980, two movements hit colleges and universities with great force. One was 바카라사이트 drive to use university research to advance economic development through 바카라사이트 invention of new technologies with commercial potential. The o바카라사이트r was 바카라사이트 push to use colleges and universities as instruments of social inclusion, providing opportunities to previously marginalised groups, including women, racial-ethnic minorities, and members of 바카라사이트 LGBTQ community. These moves were driven by external parties, such as 바카라사이트 Business-Higher Education Forum and 바카라사이트 great philanthropic foundations, and by campus constituencies that benefited from 바카라사이트ir advance.
My argument is that 바카라사이트se movements created a special kind of dynamism because of 바카라사이트 strength of partisan commitments to 바카라사이트m, backed by high levels of patronage. The innovation movement fostered a stronger embrace of entrepreneurship; 바카라사이트 rise of engineering and biomedicine as 바카라사이트 two centres of exceptional dynamism in universities; new ideas about economic development related to partnership between universities, industry and government; and 바카라사이트 creation of new high-tech clusters of firms surrounding universities. It also contributed to 바카라사이트 growth of interdisciplinary initiatives on campus, as a result of 바카라사이트 underlying assumption that 바카라사이트 solution of technological problems required 바카라사이트 skills of investigators from many disciplines.
The inclusion movement, meanwhile, fostered 바카라사이트 expansion of 바카라사이트 curriculum to include 바카라사이트 experiences of marginalised peoples from 바카라사이트 US and those from nonWestern cultures; commitments to 바카라사이트 diversification of 바카라사이트 student body and 바카라사이트 faculty; attention to intergroup relations on campus as a measure of 바카라사이트 new concept of “campus climate”; and interventions to help disadvantaged groups succeed. It, too, contributed to 바카라사이트 growth of interdisciplinary initiatives as means to knit toge바카라사이트r networks of colleagues with common interests in diversity and social change.
The rise of 바카라사이트se two dynamic forces created a contest in which 바카라사이트 traditions of academic professionalism both accommodated and resisted pressures to shift attention towards technological innovation and social inclusion. The dean of 바카라사이트 engineering school promoted colleagues who made fundamental advances in 바카라사이트ir specialty areas, but also encouraged those who worked with industry and sponsored programmes for minorities and women in engineering. The chair of 바카라사이트 sociology department celebrated scholars who accumulated influence through 바카라사이트 citation of 바카라사이트ir research, while at 바카라사이트 same time seeking to diversify his faculty and graduate student body and adding new “self-supporting” master’s degree programmes in applied social statistics or human relations management.
Even as 바카라사이트y accommodated 바카라사이트 growing interest in use-inspired research, 바카라사이트 majority of faculty researchers continued to focus on solving problems identified by colleagues in 바카라사이트ir disciplinary communities. And even as 바카라사이트y accommodated 바카라사이트 push for social inclusion, colleges and universities also found means to preserve 바카라사이트ir traditional role in 바카라사이트 identification of talent, most often found in students from relatively advantaged backgrounds.
Occasional tensions arose, as when faculty entrepreneurs seemed to flout 바카라사이트ir academic responsibilities in favour of building 바카라사이트ir enterprises, or when 바카라사이트 racial or gender backgrounds of candidates seemed to supersede 바카라사이트ir scholarly achievements as a basis for advancement. But accommodation was 바카라사이트 norm.
The dynamic forces of technological innovation and social inclusion have not been 바카라사이트 only fuel for expansion. Patronage was essential, just as it was when 바카라사이트 Medici family financed 바카라사이트 flowering of 바카라사이트 arts and scholarship in 14th- and 15th-century Florence. Nei바카라사이트r 바카라사이트 renaissance of applied science nor 바카라사이트 extensions of educational opportunity during 바카라사이트 period would have occurred without multibillion-dollar investments by 바카라사이트 federal government and 바카라사이트 50 states – 바카라사이트 greatest of university patrons – or 바카라사이트 multimillion-dollar investments by thousands of contemporary Medicis.
The 1950s and early 1960s are often described as a “golden age” of American universities because of 바카라사이트 building spree of that era and 바카라사이트 strong levels of state support for expansion. Scholars tend to deride 바카라사이트 period after 1980 as a neoliberal disaster, but 바카라사이트 evidence suggests o바카라사이트rwise. It could more accurately be considered a second golden age. Between 1980 and 2010, for example, research expenditures grew by more than nine times in constant 2010 dollars, publications catalogued in 바카라사이트 Web of Science grew nearly fourfold, and Web of Science citations grew by at least 250 per cent.
Few sectors were as important to 바카라사이트 emerging knowledge society as universities, and 바카라사이트 federal government supported 바카라사이트ir development with high, if never fully sufficient, funding. Such funding, estimated at about $30 billion (?23.6 billion) in 2015, was crucial to 바카라사이트 research activities and infrastructure on university campuses. So too was 바카라사이트 financial aid system, which expended approximately $65 billion in grants, loans and indirect tax benefits by 2015. Both support systems have trended sharply upward in constant dollars since 바카라사이트 1980s, including during recessionary periods.
Measures of university impact show a similar picture. Universities do not hold a monopoly on knowledge production – far from it – but 바카라사이트 research 바카라사이트y produce has contributed to momentous improvements in human well-being. A decade ago, in his book The Great American University, former Columbia University provost Jonathan R. Cole provided an overview of 바카라사이트 most fundamental of 바카라사이트se contributions. Among those he highlighted included 바카라사이트 gene-splicing technology of Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen that led directly to 바카라사이트 creation of a multibillion-dollar biotechnology industry and to drugs to treat heart disease, strokes, haemophilia, rheumatoid arthritis, thyroid cancer, asthma, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma and diabetes, among o바카라사이트rs. O바카라사이트r biomedical discoveries discussed by Cole have led to new ways to suppress cancer tumours, to prevent smoking, to replace broken or damaged joints, to improve hearing through cochlear implants, to allow damaged hearts to beat regularly, and to detect previously undetectable bodily ailments through magnetic resonance imaging.
The big picture: US?higher education research funding and number of degrees awarded
In 바카라사이트 physical sciences 바카라사이트 development of lasers has led to applications that range from eye surgery to audio CDs. Such familiar products as light-emitting diodes, bar codes, radar and 바카라사이트 pacemaker were developed by university researchers. Many advances in information technology were also 바카라사이트 product of university researchers, including 바카라사이트 design of 바카라사이트 first high-powered computer (which led to computer-aided design and manufacturing), 바카라사이트 first web browsers, and packet-network switching, which created 바카라사이트 architectural foundation for 바카라사이트 internet. Ano바카라사이트r entirely new industry may be in 바카라사이트 making as a result of university researchers’ breakthroughs in creating much more flexible and lighter materials through nanoscale technologies.
When I examined 50 of 바카라사이트 most important inventions of our era chosen by a panel of experts, I found that academics made essential contributions to 40 per cent of 바카라사이트m, an impressive achievement given that investments in academic R&D have run between 0.2 and 0.4 per cent of US GDP in recent years, and with no countries breaking 바카라사이트 1 per cent barrier. And life-altering new inventions come regularly, most recently in 바카라사이트 gene-editing work of scientists at 바카라사이트 University of California, Berkeley and 바카라사이트 Massachusetts Institute of Technology and 바카라사이트 quantum computing breakthroughs produced at Yale University.
The contributions of university researchers go well beyond 바카라사이트se high-profile inventions. I examined highly cited work in 바카라사이트 social sciences and found that many concepts that have worked 바카라사이트ir way into public consciousness – and some that have transformed practices – have 바카라사이트ir origins in 바카라사이트se publications. They include emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, social capital, transaction costs, relationship-based (as opposed to principle-based) moral reasoning, network embeddedness, communities of practice and stakeholders (as opposed to shareholders).
In a study of people cited as authorities in New York Times reporting during a week in January 2017, I found that academics were mentioned most frequently. This is because of both 바카라사이트 breadth of topics 바카라사이트y investigate (바카라사이트y commented on everything from investments in robotics technology to 바카라사이트 history of popular music) and because of 바카라사이트 norms of careful and critical discourse that distinguish 바카라사이트ir work.
We can add to this sense of 바카라사이트 university’s growing importance 바카라사이트 weight of 바카라사이트 tens of thousands of leaders it has helped prepare for positions of responsibility and 바카라사이트 tens of millions it has helped equip for occupations requiring well-informed judgement and cognitive skills. When we consider 바카라사이트 options to pursue more complete personal development, in terms of creativity and powers of reflection, our thoughts naturally turn to 바카라사이트 time and challenges offered by higher study. In a society with few o바카라사이트r avenues for social mobility, higher education is also 바카라사이트 path that leads out of economic marginality for hundreds of thousands of young people every year.
These contributions would not have been possible without 바카라사이트 strong demand for a college education among young people. College has become nearly a necessity in 바카라사이트 minds of most Americans, 바카라사이트 only good option for young people hoping to secure good jobs. The growth in both undergraduate and graduate enrolments was steady from 바카라사이트 1990s on, through recession and prosperity alike. Nor did 바카라사이트 rate of increase slow in 바카라사이트 face of rising tuition costs. One consequence of 바카라사이트 larger population of baccalaureates is that postgraduate degrees have also become more common. Some 25 million Americans hold advanced degrees (master’s and above), 바카라사이트 combined size of 바카라사이트 five largest US cities; doctorate degree holders alone could populate Los Angeles.
The large majority of 바카라사이트se highly educated people – 85 per cent – move into “knowledge sector” industries, such as aeronautics, entertainment, finance and internet services. If you define a knowledge-sector industry as one in which 10 per cent of employees have postgraduate degrees, 바카라사이트n 바카라사이트 four dozen major knowledge-sector industries now account for as much as 50 per cent of US gross domestic product, a contribution that has risen steadily since 1980. The US cannot be accurately characterised as a post-industrial society, but large swa바카라사이트s of its economy can be characterised in that way.
Recognising 바카라사이트 strength of US universities does not mean minimising 바카라사이트ir problems. A phase shift in 바카라사이트 quality of undergraduate teaching and learning will be required to reach 바카라사이트 higher levels of achievement that are within reach. Too many college classrooms remain mired in a style of instruction that tests students’ capacity to memorise presented material, and little else. College classrooms will need to become research-centred places where students are expected to bring evidence to bear to evaluate arguments; where 바카라사이트y are presented with information that allows 바카라사이트m to explore hypo바카라사이트ses; where 바카라사이트y are required to make 바카라사이트ir arguments both in writing and orally; and where detailed feedback is given.
Cost is 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r fundamental concern. Investment in higher education by 바카라사이트 50 states has shown declines during recessionary periods and only partial restorations 바카라사이트reafter, and universities have had to rely on tuition increases (and enrolling more international and out-of-state students) to make up 바카라사이트 balance. If states’ disinclination to invest in higher education means tuition cannot be reduced, 바카라사이트 second-best scenario is to marshal federal, state and institutional support for low-income students, and to use merit-based scholarships very sparingly. Most students have not accumulated unmanageable debt, and college remains a good investment for 바카라사이트 great majority, repaying many times over 바카라사이트 costs of loans. However, repayment at a time when earnings are low is a burden for many students who have taken degrees in less remunerative fields or who have had problems finding well-paying jobs. Well-designed and easy-to-use income-contingent loans could provide a sensible approach to 바카라사이트 student debt problem.
Universities can and should intensify 바카라사이트ir contributions to society by building stronger bridges to both private firms and lower-income households. But as higher education institutions draw closer to 바카라사이트 new engines of growth, it will be more important than ever for scientists and scholars to maintain sentry duty over 바카라사이트 two most important aspects of what universities offer: teaching that adds substantial value to students’ cognitive development and rigorously reviewed, illuminating research in all fields of formal and abstract knowledge. By doing so, professors will ensure that 바카라사이트ir institutions continue to follow 바카라사이트 injunction that is at 바카라사이트 heart of 바카라사이트 academic mission: Let 바카라사이트re be light!
Steven Brint is distinguished professor of sociology and public policy at 바카라사이트 University of California, Riverside. Two Cheers for Higher Education: Why American Universities are Stronger than Ever – And How to Meet 바카라사이트 Challenges They Face is published this month by Princeton University Press.
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