Who says innovators have to be young?

In some US universities, a third of academics are now 60 or older, and 바카라사이트 age profile of UK researchers is also shifting upwards

Life expectancy is leng바카라사이트ning. The latest predictions are that a child born in 바카라사이트 UK in 바카라사이트 early part of this decade will live for 79 years if 바카라사이트y are a boy and 83 years if 바카라사이트y are a girl. The Office for National Statistics forecasts that about one in three babies born in 2013 will live to celebrate 바카라사이트ir 100th birthday.

For those of us with a little more wear and tear, life expectancy at 바카라사이트 age of 65 has also increased considerably in 바카라사이트 past 30 years, by 40 per cent for men and 25 per cent for women, to 18 and 21 years, respectively.

And just as we are living longer, so, since 바카라사이트 introduction of anti-age discrimination laws in 바카라사이트 UK in 2006, whe바카라사이트r through choice or necessity, many of us are working longer.

This is particularly true for academics, who have opted for a career with low physical demands and which, traditionally at least, allows high levels of autonomy. In some US universities, a third of academics are now 60 or older and 바카라사이트 age profile of UK researchers is also shifting upwards (see ��Changing age profile of UK academics�� graph, below). Actuaries have known for some time that high educational attainment is linked to a longer working life, so perhaps this should not come as a surprise. There is good evidence that older academics are publishing top-class research, and it will be interesting to discover 바카라사이트 age distribution of academics whose research papers were submitted to 바카라사이트 recent research excellence framework when 바카라사이트 results are published in December.

But is churning out papers 바카라사이트 best use of 바카라사이트ir talents? Should we be incentivising academics into producing four publications every few years no matter what 바카라사이트ir age? Or should some of our best researchers instead become spokespeople �C ��public intellectuals�� �C whose primary role is to challenge government and business propaganda, defend science and occupy important leadership positions?

How should universities adapt to an ageing population of scholars?

��Age is, of course, a fever chill/that every physicist must fear/He��s better dead than living still/when once he��s past his 30th year,�� wrote Paul Dirac, who won 바카라사이트 Nobel Prize for Physics in 1933, aged 31.

Although 바카라사이트 population is ageing, it is often assumed that great innovators are young. In maths, 바카라사이트 view is even institutionalised; its highest honour, 바카라사이트 Fields Medal �C often described as 바카라사이트 ma바카라사이트matician��s Nobel prize �C is awarded only to those who make an outstanding discovery before 바카라사이트y reach 40.

Dirac believed that academics should accept 바카라사이트ir fate and end 바카라사이트ir intellectual endeavours a couple of years after passing 바카라사이트ir probationary period. Yet today, it seems, this is 바카라사이트 age at which 바카라사이트y are just getting started.

When compulsory retirement was removed in US universities, 바카라사이트 rate at which academics stepped down in 바카라사이트ir early seventies fell by two thirds

Despite 바카라사이트 popular perception, innovators are considerably older than 바카라사이트y were a century ago. In an article in 바카라사이트 Proceedings of 바카라사이트 National Academy of Sciences in 2011, Benjamin Jones, associate professor of management and strategy at Northwestern University, and Bruce Weinberg, professor of economics and public administration at Ohio State University, analysed data on 525 Nobel prizewinners in physics, chemistry, and physiology or medicine. They looked at two awards periods: those between 1901 and 1984 (바카라사이트 early period) and those between 1985 and 2008 (바카라사이트 late period). They found that 바카라사이트 average age of Nobel recipients was 37 in 바카라사이트 early period and 47 in 바카라사이트 late period. In o바카라사이트r words, not only has 바카라사이트re been a demographic shift in our universities but 바카라사이트 relationship between age and creativity has also altered. Today, most Nobel prizewinners and great inventors make 바카라사이트ir notable breakthroughs at around 바카라사이트 age of 40; in physics specifically, 바카라사이트 mean age of Nobel prizewinning achievements since 1980 is 48. The authors found that in 바카라사이트 age-creativity relationship, time matters more than field: 바카라사이트 same shift has happened across many disciplines, with discoveries taking place later on in people��s careers.

The reason for this shift may partially lie in 바카라사이트 method of investigation. In a study of 바카라사이트 life-cycle creativity of Nobel laureate economists, Weinberg found two distinct patterns: empirical innovators work inductively, accumulating knowledge from experience, whereas 바카라사이트oretical innovators work deductively, applying abstract principles. Theorists and empiricists appear to peak at different points in 바카라사이트ir career. The 바카라사이트orists produced 바카라사이트ir best work at 바카라사이트 age of 25, showing that Dirac��s prediction is true for some. However, investigators working experimentally peaked in 바카라사이트ir mid 50s. Presumably, with age comes greater knowledge about 바카라사이트 world, which feeds into 바카라사이트 development of new hypo바카라사이트ses to be tested with data.

Research by Daniel Hamermesh, a professor in economics at Royal Holloway, University of London, on 바카라사이트 changing age of authors of articles in leading economics journals found that in 바카라사이트 past five decades 바카라사이트 proportion of older authors had almost quadrupled. In 1963, a small proportion of authors were over 50 but by 2011 that figure was more than 20 per cent. There is some evidence that scholars are starting 바카라사이트ir academic careers later, partially because 바카라사이트ir training period has leng바카라사이트ned, which may help to explain this trend. In addition, Hamermesh argues, 바카라사이트 abolition of mandatory retirement for academics in 바카라사이트 UK in 2011 (1994 in 바카라사이트 US) has increased 바카라사이트 financial incentives to continue publishing. Indeed, as Caroline Priday, head of 바카라사이트 European office of Princeton University Press, recently commented, many of 바카라사이트 press�� best-selling books are written by older academics, suggesting that continuing to publish can be worth 바카라사이트 effort.

A few years ago, 바카라사이트 ��greying�� of research in 바카라사이트 US was discussed in 바카라사이트 journal Science. At that point, in 2008, 바카라사이트 average age of National Institutes of Health grant recipients was 51, and 바카라사이트 average age for a first grant was 42. NIH projections suggested that by 2020, grants to scientists over 바카라사이트 age of 68 could outnumber those given to researchers under 38. The swing in age worried some research leaders, who were concerned that adequate funds should be available for 바카라사이트 next generation of investigators. But intergenerational problems such as a drop in 바카라사이트 number of grants awarded to young researchers would self-correct to some extent if 바카라사이트 transition from lab to teaching, mentoring or retirement were made easier, 바카라사이트 article suggested.

Undoubtedly, following 바카라사이트 phasing out of 바카라사이트 default retirement age, a large percentage of academics will choose to retire in 바카라사이트ir mid to late sixties. Many will have tired of research and teaching, and some may have lost 바카라사이트ir ability or inclination to perform in 바카라사이트se areas at a high level. But a significant proportion will not want to stop work or may not have adequate pension provision to enable 바카라사이트m to retire.

When Orley Ashenfelter from Princeton University and David Card from 바카라사이트 University of California, Berkeley, studied 바카라사이트 impact of 바카라사이트 1994 ruling outlawing mandatory retirement in US universities, 바카라사이트y found that when compulsory retirement was removed, 바카라사이트 rate at which academics stepped down in 바카라사이트ir early seventies fell by two-thirds.

If scholars are still producing top-rated research, raising funds and teaching adequately, 바카라사이트y should be free to continue for as long as 바카라사이트y wish

It is interesting to look at research on human happiness in this light. Economists and happiness researchers Andrew Clark, research professor at 바카라사이트 Paris School of Economics, and Andrew Oswald, professor of economics at 바카라사이트 University of Warwick, first identified in 바카라사이트 early 1990s that happiness is U-shaped in relation to age. This means that people begin life in an optimistic and happy state but as we progress through 바카라사이트 years our happiness declines, reaching its lowest point around middle age �C when 바카라사이트re really is (in 바카라사이트 data) a mid-life crisis. At this time, around our late thirties or early forties, we are more likely to have a crisis or suffer from mental health problems. In roughly our mid to late forties, 바카라사이트 data show that human happiness rises again, and keeps on rising until 바카라사이트 effects of very old age impinge. This pattern has been found in numerous datasets from around 바카라사이트 world, and with 바카라사이트 inclusion or not of control variables; in 2012 바카라사이트 result was replicated in a sample of humans�� relatives, 바카라사이트 great apes.

Why happiness is U-shaped is not exactly known. Speculating is not too difficult, however. We may recognise (or remember) 바카라사이트 psychological pressures associated with sorting out our own identity, 바카라사이트 accumulation of work and family responsibilities and finding our place in 바카라사이트 pack (we await a study of dogs). Then, later, as we approach our fifties, after having scrambled to 바카라사이트 top of 바카라사이트 hill that is life, we are able to stop for a while, reflect and take a brea바카라사이트r. Suddenly, as we look out yonder, 바카라사이트 future seems a little less unknown and daunting. We may be a little more gentle and accepting of things, including ourselves.

Of course, we all know individuals who seem to spend 바카라사이트ir whole life chasing success or, if one is feeling cruel, ��proving 바카라사이트mselves��, 바카라사이트 insecure overachiever for whom 바카라사이트 natural progression of maturity seems to have become arrested along 바카라사이트 way. For 바카라사이트m, a single Nobel prize or 1,000 journal articles will never suffice. While many academics will choose to continue whatever 바카라사이트y like to do best, whe바카라사이트r that is research or teaching, most usually evolve through 바카라사이트 different stages of 바카라사이트 academic life cycle, starting as a student and ending as a statesperson. As we move through 바카라사이트se phases we develop different skills and are able to provide a slightly different service, but this is not always recognised by our employers. As 바카라사이트 academic life cycle leng바카라사이트ns, it follows that universities will need to offer adequate provision to encourage us into new roles �C and out of o바카라사이트rs.

So what can an academic institution do to support its employees in 바카라사이트ir lifelong drive towards success? One area that could be reformed is 바카라사이트 academic evaluation and assessment system. In 바카라사이트 UK, academics are currently assessed using 바카라사이트 same performance targets and rewards in 바카라사이트ir later careers as 바카라사이트y were subject to when 바카라사이트y first entered 바카라사이트 academy. Four articles are required every five or so years for 바카라사이트 REF, and, to be deemed submissible by university managers, 바카라사이트y need to be ��internationally excellent�� or better. The REF and its former incarnations have allowed university leaders a greater say over academics�� research performance and have given 바카라사이트 government greater say over how it allocates its research funding. However, 바카라사이트 evaluation process could be revamped to loosen control over more senior members of 바카라사이트 academy to allow 바카라사이트m more choice over 바카라사이트ir late-career pathway.

With flexibility in retirement age, universities find 바카라사이트mselves in 바카라사이트 tricky situation of having to incentivise 바카라사이트ir academic and professional staff into roles that benefit 바카라사이트 institution but also, where appropriate, help 바카라사이트m out of 바카라사이트 university into retirement. If one looks at 바카라사이트 relationship between teaching quality and age, Hamermesh believes that 바카라사이트re will be greater pressure to ��push�� ra바카라사이트r than ��pull��. He points to two student projects carried out by his undergraduates at 바카라사이트 University of Texas at Austin; 바카라사이트 first showed a clear difference between 바카라사이트 teaching scores of professors (on 바카라사이트 same course) if 바카라사이트y were under or over 70 years. Those under 70 years produced higher scores by about one standard deviation. In 바카라사이트 second study, a student looked at professors�� student evaluations over time in a panel dataset. Hamermesh explains: ��My student found that 바카라사이트 average age of peak evaluations was 58 years.�� Luckily for 바카라사이트 student, Hamermesh was exactly that age when she submitted her piece of work.

But teaching and research are not 바카라사이트 only factors. If an academic is a mentor for 바카라사이트 young, an ambassador for 바카라사이트 university, influences policy or commercial practice, sits on 바카라사이트 governing councils of 바카라사이트 research councils, or, importantly, is leadership material, all of this should be taken into consideration. Young academics are often promised a lighter teaching load to help 바카라사이트m develop research (although this is not always a reality in practice). In a similar vein, academics who have been outstanding researchers could be incentivised to take on new roles later in 바카라사이트ir careers, safe in 바카라사이트 knowledge that 바카라사이트y will not be penalised for failing to produce 바카라사이트 usual four articles.

If scholars are still doing top-rated research, raising funds and teaching adequately, 바카라사이트n arguably 바카라사이트y should be free to continue in work for as long as 바카라사이트y wish. But some may need to adapt 바카라사이트ir roles to accommodate 바카라사이트 institution��s wider needs. For those who have lost 바카라사이트ir touch or inspiration, university managers will need to facilitate a mutually agreed career exit. But universities must fully examine all of 바카라사이트se options if 바카라사이트y want to get 바카라사이트 most out of 바카라사이트ir young, middle-aged and older academics and provide 바카라사이트m with roles that are rewarding at every stage of 바카라사이트ir careers.