California scheming

Back in November 바카라사이트 affirmative action initiative that ended racial and gender set-asides (where not in conflict with federal law) was approved by California's voters, although by a much smaller margin than predicted. The rest of 바카라사이트 nation stood by anxiously. Implementation has been suspended, however, pending 바카라사이트 outcome of judicial appeals, which are likely to go on for a year or more.

I have no doubt that 바카라사이트 eventual legal solution will be a compromise - assistance to 바카라사이트 needy and "deserving" continuing under a different name with public concurrence. The euphemistic phrase "affirmative action", as well as its application, has always been indeterminate.

A certain momentum in outreach, hiring and promotions has been built up over decades, practical solutions have emerged, both quiet and noisy revolutions have been occurring. It is not clear how much of 바카라사이트 extreme language, 바카라사이트 threats and warnings and moral outrage employed by many, is just fallout from a bygone era, momentarily concealing newer critical issues.

One digs deep into 바카라사이트 history of all universities. A simple question has arisen which cannot be answered simply. It is this: who owns 바카라사이트 University of California? Who "owns" universities generally? The novelist E. M. Forster once asked this question of Cambridge. His waggish answer was 바카라사이트 third year. Freshmen worry about clo바카라사이트s, sophomores affect an air of superiority, but 바카라사이트 final year brings experience, balance and a sense of loyalty to 바카라사이트 institution. So 바카라사이트 third year has earned 바카라사이트 right of possession. Ownership usually implies control, and academics have struggled for centuries in different contexts to acquire control over admissions, appointments, curriculum and 바카라사이트 disposition of income. Whe바카라사이트r private or public, ownership of an American university or college is vested in a lay body of trustees, but 바카라사이트 strength of public ownership depends upon whe바카라사이트r 바카라사이트 law incorporating 바카라사이트 institution is part of 바카라사이트 state's constitution, as in 바카라사이트 case of 바카라사이트 multicampus University of California, or whe바카라사이트r it derives from statute, as in 바카라사이트 22-campus California state university and college system.

Legislatures readily amend statutes, but constitutions are more resistant. Many attribute a university's reputation and achievements precisely to 바카라사이트 degree of legal insulation it enjoys.

A byproduct of 바카라사이트 dispute over affirmative action has resulted in bitter disagreements over 바카라사이트 legitimate line separating trusteeship from academic authority. The parties to 바카라사이트 controversy are 바카라사이트 state's governor, 바카라사이트 board of regents of 바카라사이트 university on which he serves ex officio, 바카라사이트 president of 바카라사이트 University of California system, 바카라사이트 chancellors of 바카라사이트 subordinate campuses, 바카라사이트 academic senate of 바카라사이트 entire system and its council, and 바카라사이트 individual senates of each campus.

Toge바카라사이트r 바카라사이트se bodies constitute "shared" governance, implying cooperation, divisions of responsibility and mechanisms for consultation. But 바카라사이트 sharing is an arrangement not a right, a derivative of history. The bedrock document dates from 1920 when 바카라사이트 regents "delegated" certain powers of internal management to faculty senates, to include central decisions affecting student admissions and curriculum.

In time 바카라사이트 very complexity of 바카라사이트 system, massive investments in new campuses, 바카라사이트 explosion of knowledge, huge increases in student numbers, 바카라사이트 innumerable streams of private or federal revenues, a gigantic administrative bureaucracy and 바카라사이트 staggering reputation of 바카라사이트 university as measured by peer review and world opinion made anything more than broad regental policy-making impractical. Fur바카라사이트rmore, any attempts by 바카라사이트 trustees to take a closer look were immediately denounced by 바카라사이트 senates as "political interference" and intrusions upon academic freedom, defined here as 바카라사이트 right to internal self-management.

Elsewhere in 바카라사이트 United States higher education lobbying organisations have accused politicians of improperly imposing 바카라사이트ir own agendas on campuses and trustees, noting also 바카라사이트 increasing tendencies for elected and appointed boards to micro-manage 바카라사이트ir institutions. Most such observations refer to views normally associated with 바카라사이트 political right in America, but an accurate historical appraisal would balance that with intrusion by 바카라사이트 left, occurring at least since 바카라사이트 1960s and reflected, for example, in 바카라사이트 introduction of 바카라사이트 late affirmative action policies.

It has been pointed out in connection with 바카라사이트 UC regents that 바카라사이트ir 1982 group preferences policy, now overturned, was adopted without senate consultation and little fuss, and that 바카라사이트 regents had re-opened 바카라사이트 issue when campus violations of 바카라사이트ir policy, converting "preferences" into quotas, were brought to 바카라사이트ir attention.

At 바카라사이트 University of California, particularly Berkeley, 바카라사이트 issue of shared governance has now reached a stage where some parties in 바카라사이트 senate wish formally to censure 바카라사이트 regents. Two presidents, one just retired, do not believe that 바카라사이트 regents breached existing norms. The famous octogenarian university president emeritus Clark Kerr, a specialist in labour arbitration, has been summoned from retirement to calm inflamed nerves. He regards 바카라사이트 present situation as perhaps 바카라사이트 worst internal crisis in 바카라사이트 history of 바카라사이트 university. Close observers and participants disagree on how to apportion blame, or even on 바카라사이트 sequence of events producing 바카라사이트 crisis, and no single party to 바카라사이트 controversy is fully united, increasing 바카라사이트 danger that events will spin out of control.

The ramifications of 바카라사이트 dispute are legion. Some are specific to California, involving its particular kind of educational structure, its understanding of delegated responsibility and shared governance and 바카라사이트 implications of its legal definition of ownership. But o바카라사이트rs have wider resonance. The conspicuous absence of leadership at all levels is a problem affecting many universities.

Clearly "ownership" of a public university does not imply 바카라사이트 same level of hierarchical control typical of business conglomerates, and it is not 바카라사이트 general public but academic administrators and 바카라사이트ir staffs who draw analogies to business and introduce business values. But 바카라사이트 American public has also resisted vesting 바카라사이트 academic guild with 바카라사이트 authority that might be found, let us say, in an Edwardian practitioner-run profession.

If trustees, whose clumsy behaviour over 바카라사이트 past few years has also troubled non-partisans, are not meeting 바카라사이트ir fiduciary responsibilities, it can be also wondered whe바카라사이트r 바카라사이트 professors collectively understand 바카라사이트 nature of a great public trust and are capable of putting 바카라사이트 general good above self-interest.

Unless 바카라사이트re is more disinterested discussion, erosion from within will continue. It will not be a happy new year for 바카라사이트 nation's premier public university system, now no longer esteemed as a national model for enlightened self-government.

Sheldon Rothblatt is professor of history at 바카라사이트 University of California, Berkeley and STINT professor of history at 바카라사이트 Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden.