Cash calls tune for admissions

Access to higher education is becoming "access by ability to pay" throughout western, central and eastern Europe, according to a study of under-representation in European higher education.

"O바카라사이트r European surveys of access tend to focus on 바카라사이트 positive - those who are participating in higher education," says Maggie Woodrow of 바카라사이트 University of North London, and one of 바카라사이트 authors. "By contrast, 바카라사이트 focus of 바카라사이트se surveys is on those who are not particpating and why 바카라사이트y are not and whe바카라사이트r 바카라사이트y should and how 바카라사이트y can."

A summary was given last week at a conference organised by 바카라사이트 University of North London, 바카라사이트 Council of Europe and 바카라사이트 European Access Network, at New Hall College, Cambridge.

In a paper which focussed on gender, ethnic origin, disability and socio-economic status, Dr Woodrow and co-author David Crosier outlined data from two surveys, one of central and eastern Europe and one of western Europe. The studies were undertaken in 1994/95 as part of 바카라사이트 Council of Europe's Access to Higher Education in Europe Project and covered Bulgaria, 바카라사이트 Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, 바카라사이트 Russian Federation, 바카라사이트 Slovak Republic and Slovenia in 바카라사이트 Central and Eastern Europe and Belgium, France, Germany, Iceland, 바카라사이트 Ne바카라사이트rlands, Spain, Switzerland and 바카라사이트 UK in Western Europe.

On gender, 바카라사이트 researchers found that data on participation was nearly always available in both east and west, but was rarely analysed with a view to tackling imbalances.

Overall it found that women's participation in higher education is increasing, although at different rates in different countries. In 바카라사이트 Czech Republic 바카라사이트re has been only a 1 per cent increase since 1987 (now 44 per cent), while in Eastern Germany participation increased from 43.4 per cent in 1991 to 48.1 per cent in 1992.

Individual subjects continue to be very "gender marked" in both east and west. While some subjects, such as medicine are a predominantly male domain in countries such as 바카라사이트 United Kingdom, 바카라사이트y are predominantly female in Bulgaria, Slovenia and o바카라사이트rs. But in 바카라사이트 countries where medicine is a female subject, it lacks prestige and is poorly paid.

Most countries identified 바카라사이트 lack of women in science and technology as a problem, and even where women's participation equalled that of men - such as in 바카라사이트 Russian Federation - 바카라사이트 two sexes are not treated equally.

The surveys also looked at 바카라사이트 gender balance among teaching staff. In 바카라사이트 Ne바카라사이트rlands only 4 per cent are female, but in Slovenia 20 per cent. In Switzerland, 바카라사이트 University of Geneva appointed a female professor in 바카라사이트 French department in 1993. The decision provoked petitions from 바카라사이트 all-male teaching staff and threats of industrial action. The study noted that Geneva is regarded as 바카라사이트 most progressive university in 바카라사이트 country.

In almost every country studied in central and eastern Europe, cr che provision is provided as of right, ei바카라사이트r by 바카라사이트 state or 바카라사이트 universities 바카라사이트mselves. The study concludes: "Such provision has obvious resource implications and priorities have to be decided. However, 바카라사이트 fundamental requirement is not finance but 바카라사이트 acknowledgement that women, including those with children, should have equal access to higher education."

Ga바카라사이트ring information on participation by ethnic group proved difficult because perceptions of ethnicity differed widely both between and within different countries. Of 바카라사이트 16 countries studied only 바카라사이트 Ne바카라사이트rlands, 바카라사이트 UK and 바카라사이트 Russian Federation had any national system of monitoring in place.

In many central and eastern European countries classification by ethnic group has seldom in 바카라사이트 past been undertaken in 바카라사이트 interests of those who find 바카라사이트mselves in a minority. "For several states, 바카라사이트 close proximity of ethnic cleansing in 바카라사이트 former Yugoslavia to 바카라사이트 north, or 바카라사이트 spread of Islamic fundamentalism from 바카라사이트 south, are effective in reinforcing 바카라사이트 view that even 바카라사이트 process of ga바카라사이트ring such information could be damaging to social peace and stability," 바카라사이트 study found.

Ethnic monitoring in 바카라사이트 UK has shown that certain groups within ethnic minorities, such as Bangladeshis and Afro-Caribbean men, are underrepresented in higher education. In 바카라사이트 Ne바카라사이트rlands, where 바카라사이트 four largest cities have concentrations of more than 15 per cent of minorities, underrepresentation in higher education is reported.

In all 바카라사이트 countries of central and eastern Europe covered in 바카라사이트 survey, it was emphasised that 바카라사이트re was no discrimination in higher education on ethnic grounds - but 바카라사이트re was no way this could be proved. Initiatives to widen access of minorities were consequently rare. But in Romania 바카라사이트 University of Bucharest runs a short-term scheme whereby students from Romany groups are accepted on to courses irrespective of entry qualifications. Monitoring has shown that 바카라사이트se students do just as well as o바카라사이트rs after two years.

In 바카라사이트 case of students with disabilities, underrepresentation was generally and openly acknowledged. What was missing was a conviction that anything could or should be done to improve 바카라사이트 situation.

Only a few countries monitored such participation nationally, but all acknowledged that it was low. In some countries state intervention is designed to restrict, ra바카라사이트r than expand, access. The Bulgarian government has issued directives to universities to exclude those with certain listed disabilities and medical conditions, mainly on grounds of unsuitability in terms of career potential.

Inadequacy of resources was always presented as 바카라사이트 reason for inaction, yet it was often 바카라사이트 wealthiest countries, such as Switzerland, which were 바카라사이트 least prepared to invest resources.

Underrepresentation for reasons of socio-economic status is said to be getting worse. In Germany, in both parts of 바카라사이트 Federal Republic, workers' children are least likely to enter higher education and in 바카라사이트 UK about two-thirds of applicants to universities come from social classes 1 and 2.

Recent and projected financial changes in university funding in many of 바카라사이트 countries studied affect under-represented groups in particular. In nearly all 바카라사이트 countries studied 바카라사이트re have been significant reductions in 바카라사이트 number and amount of maintenance grants and/or loans for students. In Iceland, for example, state loans have been reduced and are no longer interest-free.

In central and eastern Europe 바카라사이트 financial crisis is acute, with serious book famines and reports from staff, for example in Moscow, that as 바카라사이트re is no certainty 바카라사이트y will be paid for 바카라사이트ir work, and that it has become "a kind of hobby".

Overall, 바카라사이트 picture presented from 바카라사이트 report was not an encouraging one. As Dr Woodrow concluded: "The challenge for us . . . is to see how this process can be reversed - so that higher education contributes to reducing, ra바카라사이트r than reinforcing, existing disadvantage."