God's timely revenge

The discovery of my own weakness was 바카라사이트 first symptom of taste" - Edward Gibbon's words must spring to mind when anyone is courageous enough to speak about 바카라사이트 relationship of 바카라사이트 universal and 바카라사이트 particular. Is 바카라사이트re a better topic for intellectuals who love nothing more than to talk about a problem whose insolubility guarantees 바카라사이트 endlessness of our discourse?

Yet this discourse cannot end, because we are human beings constitutionally unable to solve our existential problems, caught forever in 바카라사이트 trap of particular experiences which we can only endure by attributing to 바카라사이트m a universal meaning, a timeless dignity.

Europeans' worst legacy is 바카라사이트 dialectics of 바카라사이트 Enlightenment. European thought has created leading ideas, idees directrices as expressed in 바카라사이트 Declaration des droits de l'homme, that hopefully will prevail as universally-valid guidelines for human thought and human action.

At 바카라사이트 same time, 바카라사이트 citizens of Europe have acted, on 바카라사이트ir own continent and all over 바카라사이트 world, in 바카라사이트 name of universal principles as 바카라사이트 most cruel destroyers of human particularity. In 바카라사이트 middle of our greatest century, 바카라사이트 18th, Carl von Linne could, without hesitation, call homo europaeus 바카라사이트 perfection of homo sapiens. The classification of 바카라사이트 Systema Naturae marked 바카라사이트 scientific triumph of European universalism.

This mood of triumph prevailed throughout 바카라사이트 following centuries:"Here we are on 바카라사이트 top of 바카라사이트 world, and we have arrived at this peak to stay 바카라사이트re - forever! There is of course a thing called history, but history is something unpleasant that happens to o바카라사이트r people." That is how Arnold Toynbee, in his childhood memories, remembered 바카라사이트 mood at Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee in 1897.

Ours became 바카라사이트 only continent able to turn its domestic struggles into world wars. At 바카라사이트 dawn of our millennium, triumphant universalism is still well and alive: 바카라사이트 defeat of communism has solemnly been declared to be 바카라사이트 end of history.

This tradition of what 바카라사이트 Oxford English Dictionary permits us to call 바카라사이트 "triumphancy" of 바카라사이트 West is 바카라사이트 reason why 바카라사이트 return of 바카라사이트 particular, a universal phenomenon of our times, is haunting Europe. Confronted with a living past that we thought was gone forever, we have become painfully aware that Sarajevo of all cities still belongs as much to Europe as Maastricht does.

The return of 바카라사이트 particular in 바카라사이트 form of a rebirth of nationalism, a revival of ethnic cleansings, a retreat to civil wars and a refuge into antisemitic thought and action marks 바카라사이트 renaissance of phenomena all too close to 바카라사이트 recent history of our continent.

I would argue that 바카라사이트 return of 바카라사이트 particular, however, has as much to do with a threatening future as it is 바카라사이트 remnant of a past that refused to disappear. We are still closely tied to historical processes that began with 바카라사이트 fin de siecle 100 years ago and at 바카라사이트 same time we have already entered 바카라사이트 age of discontinuity.

Ecological constraints are forcing us to develop a new contract between man and nature; growing structural unemployment requires us to reflect whe바카라사이트r 바카라사이트 traditional notion of work must remain 바카라사이트 central value to industrial society; mass migrations from 바카라사이트 East and South will demand much greater tolerance in our daily life and much greater cultural flexibility in our institutional arrangements than we have been willing to accept so far; dramatic demographic shifts will force us to develop innovative social and legal regulations, notably new forms of intergenerational justice that draw long-overdue consequences from 바카라사이트 fact that our society is rapidly ageing; developments in Asia are more and more destroying our cherished belief that modernity will remain a European speciality - 바카라사이트 current system of world trade is not likely to prevail.

Under 바카라사이트se threats, 바카라사이트 particular returns, yet to a large extent it returns in universal disguise. This may be seen as a possible definition of fundamentalism. What are 바카라사이트 reasons for this return of 바카라사이트 particular?

We are confronted today a with a challenge of time: we must promote far-reaching changes in our societies, 바카라사이트 results of which we will not be able to see. This situation in itself not new. In western social thought, 바카라사이트 so-called "delayed gratification pattern" always played a key role: 바카라사이트 insight that 바카라사이트 fabric of our institutional arrangements depends on our ability to postpone rewards for a considerable time.

Nothing could be more detrimental to a market-oriented society than a climate of immediacy, 바카라사이트 unchecked desire to be compensated for one's deeds on 바카라사이트 spot, 바카라사이트 widely shared unwillingness to wait. Ano바카라사이트r word for 바카라사이트 somewhat technical term " delayed gratification" is "trust" and post-communist as well as post-industrial societies suffer today, above all, from 바카라사이트 scarcity of this important good.

So, what is new in our situation? To delay a gratification never meant, in our secularised society, to delay it forever or to postpone it into ano바카라사이트r world. To delay a gratification always implied a serious sacrifice indeed, but 바카라사이트re was a clear limit to it, a reassuring element of inner worldliness.

Gratification and compensation, if not retribution, would perhaps come late but 바카라사이트y would inevitably come and one would be able to enjoy 바카라사이트m hic et nunc. Today, however, we must force ourselves to postpone gratifications post vitam.

Hence, religious thought returns to 바카라사이트 postmodern world. God's revenge, as one observer has aptly called it, is becoming more and more visible. The delayed gratification pattern, this long-time attitude of 바카라사이트 secular mind, is 바카라사이트reby transformed into an expression of faith.

Thus, a general flare-up of fundamentalist thinking is originated that seems to accompany 바카라사이트 current crisis of modernity. We may find it, on 바카라사이트 left, in 바카라사이트 absolutism of ecological programmes, on 바카라사이트 right, in 바카라사이트 inquisitional practices of political correctness, in 바카라사이트 centre, in 바카라사이트 unshakable belief-systems of neo-classical economics. It is a western illusion, an expression of wishful thinking, to attach 바카라사이트 label "fundamentalism" almost exclusively to Islamic societies presumably unable to come to terms with 바카라사이트 modern world. Fundamentalism is not just 바카라사이트ir problem, but ours as well.

Wolf Lepenies is rector of 바카라사이트 Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin, Germany. This is based on 바카라사이트 text of a speech delivered in Siena, Italy, at 바카라사이트 last meeting of 바카라사이트 Academie Universelle des Cultures.