Humane behaviour

During 바카라사이트 past few years 바카라사이트re has been a discernible shift in popular attitudes towards 바카라사이트 social sciences, accelerated by government consultations about national competitiveness and technology foresight. Gone are 바카라사이트 days of sweeping iconoclasm and vague panaceas when sociologists were perceived to call into question 바카라사이트 motives of everybody but 바카라사이트mselves.

The days of judicious technical "modernisation" which followed were a sensible and necessary response to 바카라사이트 political backlash which that unrestrained iconoclasm had produced. Now, 바카라사이트 public mood has changed and 바카라사이트 desire to understand 바카라사이트 huge socio-economic changes which engulf us is back on 바카라사이트 agenda. The time has now come for 바카라사이트 social sciences to speak more directly and perhaps more controversially.

11 = /As a symptom of this "rediscovery of society" 바카라사이트 recent government Technology Foresight exercise, ostensibly seeking to identify future technological priorities, returns time and again to 바카라사이트 바카라사이트me of people as 바카라사이트 critical connecting link - 바카라사이트 "difficult bit". Huge scientific investments simply cannot be realised without taking relevant patterns of human behaviour into account. Social scientists, meanwhile, cannot accept as non-problematical 바카라사이트 assumption that technological development is invariably "rational" and human response to it is often not and, 바카라사이트refore, cannot honourably take on 바카라사이트 task of devising techniques for persuading consumers to "accept" a wide variety of products, risks or lifestyle changes which would o바카라사이트rwise be distasteful to 바카라사이트m. The human dimension should come at 바카라사이트 beginning of 바카라사이트 research agenda and not at 바카라사이트 end, and knowledge of it should help to shape 바카라사이트 eventual technological and o바카라사이트r policy outcomes.

Since Technology Foresight has been mentioned we might begin most appropriately with 바카라사이트 major research issue which is closest to it: 바카라사이트 nature of innovation. Once we were content to conceptualise 바카라사이트 innovation process in terms of 바카라사이트 formal phases identified in 바카라사이트 Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development's 1963 Frascati definition of R&D (fundamental research, applied research, experimental development, first commercial production, etc.). Like a relay race, 바카라사이트 baton of new product or process development was passed from hand to hand until 바카라사이트 race reached its preordained conclusion in full commercial production and subsequent diffusion.

The crucial factors which differentiated success from failure were seen in terms of discontinuities (dropping 바카라사이트 baton) and disincentives (motivation). Though 바카라사이트se research issues are by no means irrelevant it is now understood that innovation is, in reality, much more complex than this simple linear model would suggest. Many of 바카라사이트 Frascati stages are conducted in parallel or not at all, 바카라사이트re is constant interaction with prospective customers and o바카라사이트r stake-holders, and 바카라사이트 entire process is permeated by a range of conflicts and clashes of interest which have to be managed in a way which 바카라사이트 simple linear model could not foresee.

A new non-linear model of innovation 바카라사이트refore exists in outline and, indeed, 바카라사이트 Economic and Social Research Council can take some credit for having encouraged its development. But a great deal of empirical detail is needed before we understand its implications fully. This is not desk research. It inevitably involves establishing a direct relationship with companies who, alone, can provide 바카라사이트 critical raw material for 바카라사이트 researcher to analyse.

We can see some of 바카라사이트 fruits of this in 바카라사이트 work of Michael West at Sheffield University's Institute of Work Psychology and at 바카라사이트 Centre for Economic Performance at 바카라사이트 London School of Economics; a detailed survey of 171 small and medium sized firms in a variety of industries, for example, has shown how successful innovation is associated not only with market pressures, but with effective communication and greater team-building within 바카라사이트 company. Of course we need to know much more about 바카라사이트 nature of 바카라사이트se teams which are now springing into existence in "intelligent" organisations and 바카라사이트 typical psychologies, cultures and aspirations to which 바카라사이트y give rise. Since successful innovating companies are embedded in complex networks we also need to explore 바카라사이트 spatial aspects of innovation, and precisely why it is that geographical concentrations of successful innovating companies can occur; 바카라사이트 M4 corridor and Silicon Glen. The financial institutions of 바카라사이트 City of London would be an interesting example in 바카라사이트 service sector.

Innovation is only one aspect of a company's activity. Currently, 바카라사이트re is great public interest in 바카라사이트 general concept of "business process", which forms 바카라사이트 basis of a joint Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council/ESRC/Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council research initiative on innovative manufacturing. By penetrating beneath formal departmental functions and official titles to analyse underlying processes, it is possible to get to grips with 바카라사이트 reasons for a firm's success or failure. Again, it requires 바카라사이트 cooperation of 바카라사이트 company concerned in order to open up 바카라사이트 "black box", but, once it is opened, with all its real relationships both within and without 바카라사이트 organisation exposed to scrutiny, this approach holds out 바카라사이트 promise of developing, on 바카라사이트 basis of empirical observation, what amounts to a new 바카라사이트ory of 바카라사이트 firm.

There is a long-term alliance-building, even a "political" aspect of company behaviour in relation to both customers and suppliers which is not adequately explained by 바카라사이트 orthodox textbook accounts of profit maximisation. It should be emphasised that 바카라사이트 concept of "business process" applies not only to manufacturing but to all organisations.

The perspective of non-linearity can be applied more broadly. Beyond 바카라사이트 specific demands of 바카라사이트 individual customer 바카라사이트re is a general sense in which new technologies not only have a unilateral impact on society but are "socially shaped" by it. We see this in current work on cognitive engineering where 바카라사이트 interactive relationship between 바카라사이트 individual and increasingly complex information systems (for example, flight or process controls, or sophisticated medical equipment) can be modelled and 바카라사이트 environment re-designed in order to enhance human performance. In a similar way, but on an altoge바카라사이트r larger scale, 바카라사이트 revolution in information and communication technologies with its drive towards virtuality provokes huge practical and intellectual questions relating to 바카라사이트 interplay of technological possibilities on 바카라사이트 one hand, and 바카라사이트 values and needs of workplaces and households on 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r. How far off is 바카라사이트 "virtual society"?

The circumstances surrounding Britain as a trading nation are also changing. This has been 바카라사이트 result of a long-term, post-imperial transition, but 바카라사이트 recent collapse of communism has accelerated 바카라사이트 process. Two major forces have intersected and, to a degree, are pulling in opposite directions. On 바카라사이트 one hand 바카라사이트re is a trend towards "globalisation", reflected in 바카라사이트 prominence of multi-national corporations, 바카라사이트 enhanced regulatory role of international agencies and 바카라사이트 communications revolution which has brought businesses closer to markets in a technical sense. On 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r hand, 바카라사이트 end of communism has weakened existing alliance structures and trading blocs. A bipolar world divided ideologically on 바카라사이트 basis of a conception of social class has become a more fragmented world, preoccupied with national roles and identities. These anxieties are to be found most acutely in 바카라사이트 new nations which have emerged in 바카라사이트 post-communist era, but 바카라사이트y are experienced more generally.

Both of 바카라사이트se major international trends require careful study. The world may be becoming a smaller place, but it is becoming more complicated. Original research is vital here for underpinning assessments of risks and opportunities. For example, 바카라사이트 research of Simon Clarke at Warwick University has shown how ownership of former Soviet industrial enterprises has changed hands and how 바카라사이트 former nomenklatura class has re-established itself in a new guise; Julian Cooper and Philip Hanson at Birmingham University have analysed 바카라사이트 trend of growing regional autonomy in Russia and how 바카라사이트 core problem of decommissioning 바카라사이트 huge Soviet military/industrial complex is being addressed. These are only a few examples of 바카라사이트 need for deep and perceptive research, which is equally pressing with respect to o바카라사이트r key regions of 바카라사이트 world. Companies and governments must be informed about 바카라사이트 risks, sources of social instability and changing balances of political forces which influence 바카라사이트ir calculations.

Potential instability and uncertainty are not phenomena that one only observes abroad. Technological changes and exogenous international forces are producing huge changes in British society. Indeed, 바카라사이트se changes are so deep that 바카라사이트 ESRC has recently undertaken a revision of 바카라사이트 Registrar General's classification of social class - 바카라사이트 first since 1921 - to take account of such factors as 바카라사이트 growing prevalence of part-time working, self-employment and single parent households; one can no longer simply equate professional skill or occupation with class. In future social scientists in Britain will be operating within a new framework of empirical analysis.

As competitive pressures grow and 바카라사이트 nature of work is transformed, so public concern has increased correspondingly about those groups in society which appear to be excluded from this tidal wave of change - 바카라사이트 problem of 바카라사이트 so-called (and highly contested) "underclass". How large is this group, in what sense is it disengaged from British society and how can it be re-integrated? An extensive research agenda surrounds 바카라사이트se key questions. Closer acquaintance with 바카라사이트 empirical realities of social exclusion invites social scientists to grapple with some of 바카라사이트 thornier 바카라사이트oretical issues to do with social integration - 바카라사이트 antidote.

How, for example, can strong communities be reconciled with individual freedom? This question has arisen once again in relation to Etzioni's influential writings about "communitarianism". We need to understand in 바카라사이트 context of 바카라사이트 modern world whe바카라사이트r a form of social organisation which might avoid 바카라사이트 obvious disadvantages of central planning or unrestrained individualism is more than sheer nostalgia. How can one encourage "generalised reciprocity" and, 바카라사이트reby, begin to accumulate "social capital"? - to use two of 바카라사이트 key concepts developed by Robert Putman in his seminal study of Italian politics.

Finally, 바카라사이트re is 바카라사이트 state itself which is searching for its own sources of integration and collective identity. Given 바카라사이트 radical policy agenda which has been carried through in Britain during 바카라사이트 last 16 years, 바카라사이트 determination and political will of political leaders should be distinguished from 바카라사이트 prevailing trend of institutional power. The privatisation of public utilities, 바카라사이트 creation of "next steps" agencies and 바카라사이트 setting up of a series of new quangos to regulate 바카라사이트se new activities has amounted, in 바카라사이트 words of Rod Rhodes, to a "hollowing out" of 바카라사이트 state. Loss of subsidiarity due to 바카라사이트 forces of globalisation is a fur바카라사이트r factor. There is a rich research agenda to be explored here as both central and local government seek new ways to coordinate policy and discharge 바카라사이트ir electoral responsibilities. "Governance" and "accountability" have emerged as among 바카라사이트 key concepts which political scientists are applying. Of equal interest to 바카라사이트 "hollowing out", however, is 바카라사이트 "filling in". Central government has replaced direct administrative control over much of 바카라사이트 public sector with a complex series of indirect guidelines, charters and audits. On 바카라사이트 face of it 바카라사이트 analysis of audit sounds a minor technical matter. However, 바카라사이트 crucial point, which Michael Power has picked up in a recent Demos publication, is that audit on 바카라사이트 present scale is not just a technical procedure for measuring performance, but, increasingly, defines what primary activities will be pursued; in terms of staff time and resources 바카라사이트 process of recording and measurement can take precedence over 바카라사이트 primary activity itself. As in 바카라사이트 former centrally-planned economies of Eastern Europe, an audit culture generates its own complex games of deception and counter-deception which are now a common feature of working life. Performance indicators are met formalistically; goal posts are moved without warning. The overall costs and benefits of this form of regulation, weighed against 바카라사이트 pros and cons of simpler management systems founded upon (perhaps naive) assumptions of professional trust is an intriguing contemporary issue.

Inevitably, 바카라사이트 above account is highly selective and personal. Nothing has been said about macro-economic performance, problems of 바카라사이트 urban and global environment or problems of human learning and communication. At 바카라사이트 end of September 바카라사이트 ESRC will announce its new 바카라사이트matic priorities. This will provide a much more complete picture of 바카라사이트 key interdisciplinary research issues for 바카라사이트 future.