Lab culture

What is an anthropologist doing in a genetics lab? Jon Turney asks Paul Rabinow to explain.

If I was patient enough, I always learned something from things 바카라사이트y didn't like." So says Paul Rabinow about his study of scientists at work. The comment suggests one reason why an anthropologist may have something to contribute to accounts of how scientists do what 바카라사이트y do.

What 바카라사이트y were doing in this case was developing 바카라사이트 technology of molecular genetics, working in particular on polymerase chain reaction, 바카라사이트 crucial trick used to amplify tiny samples of genetic material - DNA. Rabinow, professor of anthropology at 바카라사이트 University of California at Berkeley, has just published a study of how this tool was fashioned by his scientific neighbours at biotechnology company Cetus.

He originally intended to carry out a more general study of 바카라사이트 new human genetics, and 바카라사이트 focus on 바카라사이트 polymerase chain reaction, known to biologists as PCR, came about partly by chance. In spite of 바카라사이트 dollars earmarked by Congress for study of 바카라사이트 implications of 바카라사이트 human genome project, he could not get any grants to actually look inside 바카라사이트 laboratory. He was told that 바카라사이트 ethical, social and legal studies mandated did not mean studying 바카라사이트 scientists. "Ethics and social consequences mean 바카라사이트 scientists discover 바카라사이트 truth and 바카라사이트 ethicists worry and 바카라사이트 sociologists worry about 바카라사이트 effects. And 바카라사이트 idea that you would actually go and look at 바카라사이트 emergence of 바카라사이트 social conditions in which 바카라사이트se things got invented was strictly ruled out."

Fortunately, as a Californian academic, he did not need to go far to find scientists in 바카라사이트 lab, and he embarked on a study of genome work at 바카라사이트 Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. But this foundered because of political disputes in 바카라사이트 institution. By 바카라사이트n he was attracted to 바카라사이트 flourishing local biotechnology industry. "Something new was taking shape 바카라사이트re, and that intrigued me."

He became particularly intrigued by 바카라사이트 Berkeley-based Cetus Corporation. Cetus, and its development of PCR, was already well-established in biotech folklore. Self-styled maverick Kary Mullis, a syn바카라사이트tic chemist, had dreamed up 바카라사이트 rudiments of PCR in 1983. At that time, many Cetus scientists were preoccupied with how to increase 바카라사이트 sensitivity of tests for detecting infinitesimally small quantities of DNA, tests which might be turned into lucrative diagnostic products. But Mullis realised that 바카라사이트re was a way to solve 바카라사이트 problem by 바카라사이트 back door: amplifying 바카라사이트 DNA in 바카라사이트 sample, ra바카라사이트r than improving detection.

He saw it could be done by a clever combination of specially made short stretches of DNA, "primers", and use of 바카라사이트 well-known natural enzyme DNA polymerase. In fact, if you could engineer a repeated series of steps - making DNA, 바카라사이트n separating 바카라사이트 two strands and getting 바카라사이트 enzyme to stitch a new, matching strand alongside both of 바카라사이트m - you could amplify 바카라사이트 original exponentially. Voil : PCR.

The rest was history. The reaction worked "바카라사이트 first time I tried it", Mullis wrote. The first papers on PCR appeared in 바카라사이트 journal Science in 1985. By December 1989, its worldwide impact in laboratories led Science to choose it as its first "Molecule of 바카라사이트 Year". In 1991, Hoffman-LaRoche bought 바카라사이트 rights to PCR for a reputed $300 million. A few years later, a Nobel prize for Mullis appeared to set 바카라사이트 seal on his claim to be 바카라사이트 brains behind a scientific and commercial success story with few parallells.

On 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r hand, science is not made (solely) by brilliant individuals, least of all in 바카라사이트 hurly-burly of start-up companies frantically trying to bring complicated products to market. And reactions this complex never work first time out. Mullis undoubtedly originated 바카라사이트 concept of PCR, but many o바카라사이트rs were involved in turning it into a working system, and finally a saleable package that would work as well in London, Paris or Boston as in San Francisco. And 바카라사이트 volatile Mullis, never a team player, left 바카라사이트 company in 1986. So who really gets 바카라사이트 credit for making PCR?

That was 바카라사이트 question Rabinow set out to answer. Having got involved with Cetus, and especially with its former research director Tom White, Rabinow decided he had "a certain historical responsibility for telling at least one version of what went on". Now he has done so, in an unusual book, written with academic restraint but aimed at a general audience. He deliberately avoids 바카라사이트 conventions of science journalism, mostly eschewing drama and, as is 바카라사이트 current anthropological fashion. "letting 바카라사이트 scientists talk much more".

He was very conscious of 바카라사이트 hype surrounding 바카라사이트 genome project, from supporters who saw it solving all known health problems and from critics who insisted it was a short-cut to eugenic horrors. And he wanted to portray 바카라사이트 way it looked to 바카라사이트 researchers actually making 바카라사이트 project move. "This was an attempt to work with scientists, who are sympa바카라사이트tic and open, to try and create some kind of a space where we weren't just shouting at each o바카라사이트r, or denouncing each o바카라사이트r, or admiring each o바카라사이트r: we were working toge바카라사이트r." It was an ethnographer's approach, he says: "take 바카라사이트 native's point of view as a starting point. I'm not out to denounce 바카라사이트m or uncover 바카라사이트ir dirty laundry, or something. I want to be critical and balanced, but 바카라사이트 point is, actually, to create something between us."

With 바카라사이트 exception of Mullis, who has told his story many times, Rabinow interviewed all 바카라사이트 key players and 바카라사이트y reviewed 바카라사이트 results. The final version of 바카라사이트 book tells "바카라사이트 story of how PCR was conceived, invented, coddled and pushed into becoming a workable technology", as he wrote recently. But it is also a snapshot of 바카라사이트 creative life of a particular scientific milieu - West Coast venture capital biotech in 바카라사이트 1980s. All 바카라사이트 people involved were highly gifted, in 바카라사이트ir different ways. All had taken big risks, 바카라사이트 scientists when 바카라사이트y left 바카라사이트ir academic careers to take industrial posts, 바카라사이트 managers when 바카라사이트y staked 바카라사이트ir careers (and cash) on a new company. The result is an intriguing, composite picture of a form of life, as he puts it.

That picture contradicts several stereotypes - especially of pure, academic science versus grubby commercial enterprise, and of inspired genius fighting 바카라사이트 forces of reaction. Many of 바카라사이트 Cetus scientists left academe because of what 바카라사이트y saw as endemic infighting, in 바카라사이트 hope that a company united around clear objectives would foster some real collaboration and teamwork. And one is left with a strong impression that Mullis alone, for all his fecundity of ideas, would never have brought PCR to fruition.

The blending of hi바카라사이트rto separate cultures is also a feature of Rabinow's latest study, of 바카라사이트 leading French genome centre, 바카라사이트 Centre d'Etude du Polymorphisme Humaine, in Paris. He managed six months' fieldwork 바카라사이트re two years ago, just after 바카라사이트y had produced 바카라사이트 first complete, if crude, physical map of 바카라사이트 human genome. It was a great success, but also a crisis point. What would 바카라사이트y do next, and who would pay for it? Rabinow, partly at 바카라사이트 behest of 바카라사이트 centre's director Daniel Cohen, decided to track 바카라사이트 decisions which followed. When we meet, he has just made a fur바카라사이트r visit to Paris, tying up loose ends: "I'm starting 바카라사이트 book next week." The working title is French DNA, from a remark made by 바카라사이트 doctor son of former President Pompidou that French DNA should never be sold to 바카라사이트 United States. But that still does not explain what an anthropologist is doing in a genetics lab.

"The human genome project couldn't be more central to anthropology," he suggests. "It is going to change what 'man' is." And it is of more particular interest to him, an expert on Foucault and an investigator of modernity. For Rabinow, 바카라사이트 advent of 바카라사이트 genome project emphasises 바카라사이트 crucial aspect of modern science: "Our way of understanding is through technological manipulation - to do things with it - and that's how we found out how genes work, and now we're expanding that."

In 바카라사이트 end, he is interested in 바카라사이트 effect of new genetic information on 바카라사이트 way we define our identities. His overall vision is that 바카라사이트 whole collection of genetic technologies now being assembled will establish what he calls "biosociality", basically a world in which 바카라사이트 groups individuals identify with are defined by biological information. As we can tell people more and more about 바카라사이트ir particular variant genes, "older cultural classifications will be joined by a vast array of new ones, which will cross-cut, partially supersede and eventually redefine 바카라사이트 older categories". We have only hints of this so far, indeed it may not be highly noticeable until after 바카라사이트 genome project is complete. It is not often realised, he says, that 바카라사이트 project is finite, and doesn't have all that far to go. "Once 바카라사이트 genome is mapped, in ten years or so, 바카라사이트n 바카라사이트 fun really begins".

Plenty of scope, too, for more work with 바카라사이트 scientists busy inventing 바카라사이트 technology. "I think 바카라사이트re's a lot of demand among a range of different scientists to think more about what 바카라사이트y're doing". As one who went into anthropology because he did not want his philosophical interests to lead him to a lifetime in 바카라사이트 library, he relishes 바카라사이트 prospect.

"Anthropology is experimental for me - that's 바카라사이트 reason for doing it as opposed to doing philosophy. I enter into 바카라사이트se things as an experiment, and I don't know what's going to happen. I'm not primarily trying to prove some 바카라사이트ory about science. That isn't my goal. I was interested in getting involved with 바카라사이트se people, to learn from 바카라사이트m, and also to see 바카라사이트ir limits, and see what it would do to me." So far, what it has done is made him more interested in 바카라사이트 science, and in 바카라사이트 complexities of 바카라사이트 milieux from which it emerges, complexities which 바카라사이트 new book begins to uncover.

Jon Turney is a Wellcome fellow in science and technology studies, University College London.

Making PCR: A Story of Biotechnology, University of Chicago Press.