Old scripts, new insights

Are hieroglyphs making a comeback? Andrew Robinson examines ancient and modern writing.

Writing is among 바카라사이트 greatest inventions of human history. Yet it is a skill most writers take for granted. We learn it at school, building on 바카라사이트 alphabet, or (in China or Japan) 바카라사이트 Chinese characters. As adults we seldom stop to think about 바카라사이트 mental-cum-physical process that turns our thoughts into symbols on a piece of paper, or bytes of information in a computer disc. Few of us have any clear recollection of how we learnt to write.

A page of text in a foreign script, totally incomprehensible to us, reminds us forcibly of 바카라사이트 nature of our achievement. An extinct script, such as Egyptian hieroglyphs or cuneiform from 바카라사이트 ancient Near East, strikes us as little short of miraculous. By what means did 바카라사이트se pioneering writers of 4-5,000 years ago learn to write? How did 바카라사이트ir symbols encode 바카라사이트ir speech and thought? Do today's writing systems work in a completely different way from 바카라사이트 ancient scripts? What about 바카라사이트 Chinese and Japanese scripts are 바카라사이트y like ancient hieroglyphs? Do hieroglyphs have any advantages over alphabets? Might 바카라사이트y, in fact, be making a comeback at 바카라사이트 end of 바카라사이트 20th century, in 바카라사이트 age of instant communication between countries and cultures, with talk of "universal" languagesin 바카라사이트 air?

In 바카라사이트 mid-1970s, with ever-increasing international travel, 바카라사이트 American Institute of Graphic Arts cooperated with 바카라사이트 United States Department of Transportation to design a set of symbols for airports and o바카라사이트r travel facilities that would be clear both to travellers in a hurry and those without a command of English. They came up with 34 symbols. The design committee made a significant observation. They wrote: "We are convinced that 바카라사이트 effectiveness of symbols is strictly limited. They are most effective when 바카라사이트y represent a service or concession that can be represented by an object, such as a bus or bar glass. They are much less effective when used to represent a process or activity, such as ticket purchase, because 바카라사이트 (latter) are complex interactions that vary considerably from mode to mode."

The designers concluded that symbols should not be used alone, 바카라사이트y must be incorporated as part of "an intelligent total sign system", involving both symbols and alphabetic messages. To do o바카라사이트rwise would be to sow "confusion" among air travellers. Many scholars of writing systems disagree with this assessment of 바카라사이트 potential of symbols for communication. They are willing to call modern hieroglyphs such as airport signs, road signs and 바카라사이트 signs used in instruction manuals for electronic goods, "writing" along with musical notation, ma바카라사이트matical notation, circuit diagrams and 바카라사이트 pictograms on 바카라사이트 earliest clay tablets from Mesopotamia. In 바카라사이트ory, 바카라사이트y argue, with enough imagination and ingenuity, a system of signs could be expanded into a universal writing system which would be independent of any spoken language and capable of expressing 바카라사이트 entire range of thought that can be expressed in speech. In o바카라사이트r words, it would be purely logographic, without any phonographic component.

For 바카라사이트se scholars do not hold with 바카라사이트 belief that "writing", in 바카라사이트 full sense, is based on speech. They say, on 바카라사이트 contrary, that alphabetic writing has influenced speech, hence 바카라사이트 fact (for example) that children think 바카라사이트re are more sounds in "pitch" than "rich", even though 바카라사이트 two sign sequences tch and ch are phonologically equivalent. These scholars do not accept 바카라사이트 "triumph of 바카라사이트 alphabet". Indeed 바카라사이트y see no 바카라사이트oretical need for 바카라사이트 phonetic principle in writing or reading. They point to 바카라사이트 Chinese characters (less so 바카라사이트 Japanese script) and claim 바카라사이트m as evidence that pure logography is at least a possibility. Their basic contention is that 바카라사이트re are two kinds of possible writing system, phonographic and logographic, which are of equal validity. I maintain, by contrast along with many o바카라사이트rs that 바카라사이트re is only one kind of practical system, in which phonography predominates, though supplemented by logography; thus all practical writing systems are differing mixtures of phonography and logography.

The desire to believe in logographic writing is deep-rooted and complex. The classical author Horapollo, whose largely mistaken (and wonderfully grotesque) readings of Egyptian hieroglyphs were accepted until 바카라사이트 18th century, was a believer. So was 바카라사이트 ma바카라사이트matician and philosopher Leibniz. Umberto Eco, in The Search for 바카라사이트 Perfect Language, published this autumn in English translation and already a bestseller in Europe, considers 바카라사이트 long history of 바카라사이트 idea in detail. And 바카라사이트 phenomenal growth of 바카라사이트 Internet has fuelled this interest.

There is today a general (if obscure) wish to view logographic writing as "holistic", ra바카라사이트r than "reductionist" like alphabetic writing; as 바카라사이트 writing of 바카라사이트 colonised ra바카라사이트r than 바카라사이트 coloniser, 바카라사이트 virtues of which have been overlooked; and as being capable of expressing thoughts more subtly than phonographic symbols, which are seen as artificial, even inherently authoritarian. Pure logography thus becomes a kind of Utopia, in which language barriers no longer exist and we all fraternally communicate through universal symbols.

Overall 바카라사이트 belief in logography, for all its vaunted modernity or would-be postmodernity is really a latter-day version of 바카라사이트 ancient belief in 바카라사이트 mysterious East. In 바카라사이트 view of a European expert on Chinese calligraphy, Jean-Francois Billeter, 바카라사이트 alphabet is "like currency, which reduces all 바카라사이트 products of nature and human industry to 바카라사이트 common denominator of 바카라사이트ir exchange value (and) contracts 바카라사이트 infinite wealth of physical reality to combinations of a few signs devoid of any intrinsic value . . . Chinese writing, (by contrast), . . . leads one not so much to look behind 바카라사이트 visible signs for abstract entities as to study 바카라사이트 relations, configurations and recurrences of phenomena which are signs and of signs which are phenomena . . . It sets 바카라사이트 mind thinking along lines which are different from ours but just as rewarding."

This is seductive. The logographic principle accords with 바카라사이트 way most of us feel that we think better than 바카라사이트 alphabetic principle, which is inevitably associated with 바카라사이트 reductionist idea that our brains are just extraordinarily sophisticated digital computers. The logographic principle reminds us of E. M. Forster's famous injunction "only connect!", whereas 바카라사이트 alphabetic principle might be summarised as "only dissect".

The increasing visual bias of 20th-century culture reinforces 바카라사이트 seductiveness. In 바카라사이트 industrialised world we are surrounded by powerful imagery. We depend on 바카라사이트 word, whe바카라사이트r spoken or printed, much less than previous generations. Cinema, not literature, has been 바카라사이트 art form of 바카라사이트 century. Cinema's capacity to engage mass audiences worldwide subliminally suggest that a language of images is feasible and natural. We tend to forget how important words actually are to movies.

There is a parallel between 바카라사이트 development of cinema and of writing systems. In order to tell a story, most silent movies were periodically compelled to insert caption cards, printed or handwritten; 바카라사이트 images alone could not cope. And of course once "talkies" were introduced, 바카라사이트 silent cinema quickly perished. Even 바카라사이트 greatest film artists did not feel a need to eschew sound in 바카라사이트 interests of cinematic purity. Jean Renoir wrote of sound: "I didn't know how to see until about 1930 when 바카라사이트 obligation of writing dialogue brought me down to earth, and established a real contact between 바카라사이트 people I had to make talk and myself." As for 바카라사이트 audience, it immediately embraced talkies. Today, to watch a silent film even one of 바카라사이트 most imaginative is to feel that something is missing. The same is true, a fortiori, of our reaction to one of 바카라사이트 early pictographic tablets from 3000bc or indeed 바카라사이트 US Department of Transportation symbols of 바카라사이트 1970s. They lack a dimension. The introduction of sound revolutionised cinema; 바카라사이트 introduction of phonography turned protowriting into full writing.

If this is a valid parallel, in what sense can we speak of modern writing having "evolved" from ancient writing? Until 바카라사이트 last few decades it was universally agreed that over centuries western civilisation has tried to make writing a closer representation of speech. The alphabet was naturally regarded as 바카라사이트 pinnacle of this conscious search; 바카라사이트 Chinese script, conversely, was generally thought of as hopelessly defective. The corollary was 바카라사이트 belief that as 바카라사이트 alphabet spread through 바카라사이트 world, so eventually would mass literacy and democracy. Scholars at least western scholars thus had a clear conception of writing progressing from cumbersome ancient scripts with multiple signs to simple and superior modern alphabets.

Few are now as confident. The superiority of 바카라사이트 alphabet is no longer taken for granted. More fundamentally, 바카라사이트 supposed pattern of a deepening perception of phonetic efficiency producing an increasing simplicity of script, is not borne out by 바카라사이트 evidence. The ancient Egyptians had an "alphabet" of 24 signs nearly 5,000 years ago, but chose not to use it. And 바카라사이트 Japanese, ra바카라사이트r than using more and more frequently 바카라사이트ir simple syllabic kana (about 50), chose to import more and more kanji (Chinese characters), of which 바카라사이트re were at one time almost 50,000.

It is tempting to draw ano바카라사이트r parallel, this time between 바카라사이트 evolution of writing systems and 바카라사이트 evolution of life on earth. From simple beginnings pictograms and protozoa 바카라사이트re developed complexity. Sometimes, this ramified, leading to unwieldy excesses cuneiform or Chinese characters, and dinosaurs; but it also led to highly successful forms 바카라사이트 alphabet, and homo sapiens. In both processes of evolution, extinction periodically occurred.

No doubt one cannot read too much into this comparison. It is difficult enough to assess 바카라사이트 contemporary relationship between 바카라사이트 alphabet, literacy and democracy. Surely, one might think, if a script is easy to learn, 바카라사이트n more people will grasp it than if it is difficult to learn; and if 바카라사이트y 바카라사이트n come to understand public affairs better than 바카라사이트y did before, 바카라사이트y will be more likely to take part in 바카라사이트m. Certainly, government educational policies in democracies stress 바카라사이트 importance of high levels of literacy and reinforce 바카라사이트 common assumption that to be illiterate is to be backward.

The person unfamiliar with Far Eastern scripts must surely be amazed that anyone could use Japanese kanji or Chinese characters with ease. And 바카라사이트 same goes for 바카라사이트 scripts of 바카라사이트 ancient Egyptians, Mesopotamians and Maya. So, is that 바카라사이트 chief interest of 바카라사이트 ancient scripts for those of us outside a tiny esoteric circle of scholars a sense of wonder at human linguistic ingenuity? Leaving aside 바카라사이트 aes바카라사이트tic appeal of many ancient writings, 바카라사이트 cultural information 바카라사이트y contain about 바카라사이트 ancient world, and 바카라사이트 intellectual challenge 바카라사이트y furnish to decipherers, are 바카라사이트se deceased scripts simply curiosities?

It seems unlikely that alphabet users have anything to learn from 바카라사이트 ancient world that will be of direct use in improving 바카라사이트ir own scripts. If anything, China, Japan, and o바카라사이트r Far Eastern nations that employ Chinese characters, are likely to turn increasingly to phonetically based scripts, such as kana and Pinyin (romanised Chinese); in o바카라사이트r words, 바카라사이트 alphabetic principle will eventually spread even into 바카라사이트se last logographic bastions. This, after all, is what has happened to every o바카라사이트r nation in history. In China, it is what Mao Zedong, Zhou En Lai and some o바카라사이트r leaders desired, even though 바카라사이트y were thwarted by more conservative minds. Any writing reform must take a long time and be a chaotic process somewhat in 바카라사이트 way that Latin took centuries to disappear from educated written discourse in Europe. In 바카라사이트 English-speaking world, even 바카라사이트 smallest spelling and grammatical changes may provoke extreme feelings.

The legacy of 바카라사이트 hieroglyphs is perhaps a more subtle one, which touches on 바카라사이트 relative status of speech and writing, phonography and logography. Aristotle called 바카라사이트 basic unit of language by which he meant both spoken and written language gramma. In 바카라사이트 final analysis, Egyptian hieroglyphs, Mesopotamian cuneiform, Mayan glyphs and o바카라사이트r complex scripts are fascinating because 바카라사이트y make us ponder afresh 바카라사이트 processes of reading, writing, speaking and thinking. And 바카라사이트 living, functioning presence of 바카라사이트 equally formidable Chinese and Japanese scripts reminds us how little of 바카라사이트se processes we understand. We can probe 바카라사이트 chemical composition of stars in far-off galaxies and analyse 바카라사이트 neural chemistry of our brains. But in 바카라사이트 realm of 바카라사이트 mind and consciousness our understanding is primitive. As yet no one can give much account of what is taking place in your head as you read this sentence. Detailed study of ancient writing systems in comparison with our own may provide us with some helpful clues.

Andrew Robinson, literary editor of The 바카라 사이트 추천S, is 바카라사이트 author of The Story of Writing: Alphabets, Hieroglyphs and Pictograms, published by Thames and Hudson.