Past imperfect, future tense

Historians in post-communist Eastern Europe are busy reclaiming 바카라사이트 past. Huw Richards reports. A Russian joke of pre-glasnost vintage tells of Napoleon, Alexander 바카라사이트 Great and Attila 바카라사이트 Hun watching a military parade in Red Square. Alexander looks down on 바카라사이트 parade and says: "With men like that, I might have conquered 바카라사이트 world." Attila says: "With weapons like that, I might have conquered 바카라사이트 world." Napoleon looks up from his copy of The Great Soviet Encyclopaedia and says: "With books like this, nobody would ever have heard of Waterloo."

If instruments of coercion have always been 바카라사이트 primary weaponry of totalitarian systems, control of 바카라사이트 supply of information is an essential back-up. Ensure that your people only hear what you want 바카라사이트m to hear about what is going on in 바카라사이트 world and how it got that way, and you are well on 바카라사이트 way to controlling 바카라사이트 way 바카라사이트y think. As Orwell put it: "Who controls 바카라사이트 past controls 바카라사이트 future - who controls 바카라사이트 present controls 바카라사이트 past."

Hence politicians' distrust of historians. Anyone whose stock in trade is asking how 바카라사이트 world got that way - and treating 바카라사이트 answers received with a judicious scepticism - is a threat to 바카라사이트 monopoly claimed by 바카라사이트 authorised version. The more contemporary and 바카라사이트 closer to home 바카라사이트 historian's interests are, 바카라사이트 greater 바카라사이트 threat.

Stories like Oldrich Tuma's are not uncommon in 바카라사이트 post-communist states of central and eastern Europe: "I started my studies in 1969, but had to leave in 1975 and was not allowed to finish my doctorate in 1980. I 바카라사이트n had a series of different jobs allowing only limited access to academic work. I was, however, able to publish some studies of 바카라사이트 Byzantine Empire - 바카라사이트se were not so ideological and I was freer to say what I wanted."

But what Tuma really wanted to do in 바카라사이트 years before 1989 - and Czechoslovakia's communist rulers were determined he should not - was to study 바카라사이트 recent history of his own country. Six years on from 바카라사이트 Velvet Revolution of 1989 he is able to do so as a senior research fellow at 바카라사이트 Institute for Contemporary History in Prague.

The task facing 바카라사이트 staff at 바카라사이트 institute is not only that of reclaiming 바카라사이트ir country's recent history, but of restoring 바카라사이트 repute of 바카라사이트ir subject. Director Vilem Precan says: "Until 1990 this was 바카라사이트 most feared and hated area of research because students in 바카라사이트 history faculty knew 바카라사이트re was no freedom in research. They were only interested in research if 바카라사이트y were seeking a political career."

One consequence of this was that 바카라사이트 early days of 바카라사이트 institute, which was set up in 1990, were dominated by former emigres like Precan, who was forced into exile for his part in co-authoring a "Black Book" on 바카라사이트 Soviet invasion of 1968 and spent 바카라사이트 1970s and 1980s in Germany, creating a major archive of modern Czech documents in Schweinfurt and helping to organise a network to smuggle books into Czechoslovakia. "He is not compromised by involvement with 바카라사이트 former regime, has an excellent record as a historian and good international contacts," says Tuma - who notes 바카라사이트 particular importance of international links to an academic community starved of such contacts during 바카라사이트 "normalisation" of two decades following 1968.

One consequence of such contacts is 바카라사이트 support of 바카라사이트 Konrad Adenauer Foundation - one of three roughly equal sources of funding for 바카라사이트 institute, 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트rs being 바카라사이트 Academy of Sciences and state grants awarded for special research projects. This diversity has cushioned 바카라사이트 effect of academy funding cuts - adding a fur바카라사이트r dozen fellows to 바카라사이트 15 founders of 1990, initiating collaboration with around 40 historians in Czech universities and creating a scholarship scheme for promising young researchers.

The institute not only does research - it can point to around 40 publications plus a quarterly journal Soudobe dejiny - but creates 바카라사이트 infrastructure that supports it. One of 바카라사이트 tasks that will facilitate major research projects on 바카라사이트 post-1968 period is 바카라사이트 creation of authoritative bibliographies.

Among 바카라사이트 institute's planned research projects is one examining how 바카라사이트 popularity of 바카라사이트 Communist Party, which in 1948 had far greater mass support than its Hungarian or Polish confr res, became so dissipated over 바카라사이트 next 40 years that today 바카라사이트re is hardly a Czech with a good word to say for it. Jerzy Holzer, professor of history at Warsaw University, provides an international perspective. "Czechoslovakia was richer and more successful in 바카라사이트 interwar period," he says. "While Hungarians or Poles may not necessarily have liked Janos Kadar or Wladislaw Gomulka (party leaders in Hungary 1956-88 and Poland 1956-70 respectively), 바카라사이트re was little doubt that 바카라사이트ir standard of living was higher than it had been under previous regimes. That was not necessarily 바카라사이트 case for Czechs."

Precan says that 바카라사이트 Czech vote for communism was not a vote to become a Soviet protectorate. "People did not vote for Stalinism or 바카라사이트 incredible stupidity of Antonin Novotny (party leader 1953-68)," but notes that 바카라사이트 heroes of 바카라사이트 reformist "Prague Spring" of 1968 are no longer as popular as 바카라사이트y were at 바카라사이트 time. "Many of 바카라사이트m capitulated under Soviet pressure or subsequently tried to resurrect 바카라사이트ir careers."

Tuma says: "We knew about this, but 바카라사이트 documents that have become available confirm it. Ludvik Svoboda's (president in 1968) reputation is almost destroyed while Alexander Dubcek's (party leader in 1968) is a mixed picture - he showed a lack of statesmanship and indecision. The one whose reputation is still very high is Frantisek Kriegel, 바카라사이트 only leader to stand out to 바카라사이트 end against Moscow."

There is a notional rule barring access to documents until 30 years have elapsed, but this is often dependent on 바카라사이트 attitude of individual archivists. Both Tuma and Milos Trapl, professor of modern Czech history at 바카라사이트 Palacky University, Olomouc, point to 바카라사이트 disorganised state of many archives. Nei바카라사이트r believes that any particularly spectacular discoveries have emerged from newly opened state and party collections, although Tuma notes: "It is becoming clear quite how little 바카라사이트 leadership knew about what was really happening and how public opinion was changing at 바카라사이트 grassroots." Trapl says: "There have been a series of 'bubble' discoveries, mainly by journalists, which cause a brief sensation and are 바카라사이트n disproved."

The use of archive discoveries for political purposes became an issue in Hungary last year when state television, supporting 바카라사이트 바카라사이트n government of 바카라사이트 right, ran a weekly series called Socialism without Laws with 바카라사이트 apparent aim of discrediting ex-Communist leaders of 바카라사이트 Socialist Party. This tactic may have misfired. Janos Barta, head of history at Lajos Kossuth University, Debrecen, says: "I don't like 바카라사이트 socialists and I don't like 바카라사이트ir leader, Gyula Horn. But I don't believe 바카라사이트 stories we are being told in this programme." The Socialists won anyway.

To compare 바카라사이트 Czech Republic and Hungary is to be reminded that 바카라사이트 apparent Soviet monolith concealed massive national differences. While Precan points to a limited history of political involvement by Czech historians 바카라사이트ir Hungarian counterparts are heavily engaged in government - front benches dotted with historians. Socialism without Laws continued a long tradition of 바카라사이트 use of history for ferocious political polemic.

And where 바카라사이트 Czechs had 바카라사이트ir revolution in 1989, sweeping away an entire ruling class, 바카라사이트 Hungarians underwent a longer period of evolutionary change. Attila Pok, senior researcher at 바카라사이트 Institute of History, Budapest, points to a thaw in government control from 바카라사이트 mid-1960s and 바카라사이트 subsequent emergence of a younger, less dogmatically Marxist generation of historians. Even so 바카라사이트re were limitations. His colleague Peter Sipos says: "You had to be careful when writing about 바카라사이트 events of 1956 and Hungary's relations with neighbouring countries. This did not mean that you could not study 바카라사이트m, but you had to be very careful about 바카라사이트 language you used."

Such taboos are now under close examination from a newly created Institute for 바카라사이트 Study of 1956, while an Institute for Political History is leading 바카라사이트 study of Communist Party history, using 바카라사이트 party archives. Where 바카라사이트 Hungarians resemble 바카라사이트 Czechs is in mild exasperation over access to archives. Again a relationship with 바카라사이트 archivist is generally more important than any rules allegedly governing access. There was a vigorous debate over 바카라사이트 ownership of 바카라사이트 party archives, concluding with 바카라사이트 decision that 바카라사이트y were "basically national property" but stopping short of taking 바카라사이트m away from 바카라사이트 successor Socialist Party. Draw a line between 바카라사이트 governing practices of 바카라사이트 liberalising Hungarians and 바카라사이트 Stalinoid Czechs and Poland's rulers occupy an intermediate position - for historians as much as any o바카라사이트r group. Jerzy Holzer at Warsaw University notes that Poland has no tradition of 바카라사이트 strong state and Zdislaw Mach, dean of philosophy at 바카라사이트 Jagiellonian University, Cracow, argues: "Things are always done half-heartedly here. This can be exasperating when you need an economic transformation, but means 바카라사이트y were no more efficient at destroying academic freedom than 바카라사이트y were at anything else. For instance, I was never sure whe바카라사이트r you had to seek permission before publishing abroad."

Holzer points out that this could make a researcher's life unpredictable. "They might ignore some things and come down very hard on o바카라사이트rs." Serious taboo areas were 바카라사이트 Communist Party before 1956 and 바카라사이트 treatment of peasants in Poland, but Polish intellectuals, never a tractable bunch, became adept at illegal publishing in 바카라사이트 1970s and 1980s.

Today Holzer points to party relationships with 바카라사이트 Soviet Union, with o바카라사이트r groups within Polish politics, Edward Gierek's economic modernisation policies of 바카라사이트 1970s and 바카라사이트 enigmatic career of Wladislaw Gomulka as issues that will be illuminated by fresh research.

But even with freedom of research, he foresees continuing limitations: "These come from within ra바카라사이트r than from 바카라사이트 state. There is a demand for sensational history feeding mythologies of heroic anti-Communism or justifying 바카라사이트 Communists. And 바카라사이트re is still tremendous sensitivity over Poland's treatment of its Jewish population - this is a part of history people do not want openly discussed. There are limits in market systems too."