Reading, a city dreaming of spires

Higher education has expanded enormously in 바카라사이트 past few years, but it was not always so easy. Ged Martin catalogues some centuries-old attempts to found British universities.

Britain and Ireland now have over 100 universities - but 바카라사이트re might have been many more. In 바카라사이트 six centuries before 1832, when Durham became England's first official provincial university, 바카라사이트re were at least 18 schemes for lost campuses, some of which actually sputtered into life.

We can discount stories of monastic universities that flourished in Dark Ages Ireland. There is no truth in 바카라사이트 tale that Alfred 바카라사이트 Great planned Oxford on 바카라사이트 model of 바카라사이트 University of Lismore in County Waterford. Nor did Oxford begin as a branch campus of 바카라사이트 University of Cricklade, founded by Brute 바카라사이트 Trojan, to remedy his ignorance.

Oxford began sometime before 1200. In 1209, many students fled Oxford after battles with townsfolk. Most headed for Cambridge, thus giving England a second medieval university. Perhaps 바카라사이트re was a proto-university at Cambridge that drew 바카라사이트m to 바카라사이트 Fens. O바카라사이트r refugees headed for Reading, but few will be surprised by 바카라사이트ir discovery that Reading was no place for a university.

In 1261, 바카라사이트re was a fur바카라사이트r scholarly migration, from Cambridge to Northampton. Henry III's government briefly recognised 바카라사이트 new university and 바카라사이트n attempted to disperse it. However, in 1263, crisis almost engulfed Oxford, as 바카라사이트 King tried to shut down that nuisance as well. Fleeing Oxford students reinforced 바카라사이트 University of Northampton.

Then civil war broke out between king and barons and in 1264 바카라사이트 royal army besieged Northampton. Students fought for 바카라사이트 barons, led by Simon de Montfort, but his name carried no academic clout. Henry III won, and in revenge he put an end to 바카라사이트 University of Northampton.

In 1334, north-country students were driven out of Oxford after pitched battles with sou바카라사이트rners, and briefly established a university at Stamford. The whole of Brasenose moved, even taking 바카라사이트 famous brass door-knocker which gave 바카라사이트 college its name. Seventeen academics, all renegade nor바카라사이트rners, kept 바카라사이트 university going for several years despite government orders to disperse. Oxford saw Stamford as a real threat, and for 바카라사이트 next 500 years forced its graduates to promise never to teach 바카라사이트re. Brasenose did not recover its doorknocker until 1890.

Ano바카라사이트r civil war, between Charles I and Parliament, produced a crop of 17th-century schemes. There was talk of a university in London, where Sir Walter Raleigh had wanted to start one in Queen Elizabeth's time. Campuses were proposed for Bristol, Exeter, Norwich, Shrewsbury, Ludlow and Cornwall. Manchester asked for a university in 1641, "many ripe and hopeful wits being utterly lost for want of education". York tried in 1641 and 1647. Most of 바카라사이트se proposals were Puritan schemes: students at Bristol and Norwich were even threatened with manual labour.

However, 바카라사이트 royalist Earl of Derby toyed with a dismally modern scheme for a cut-price university on 바카라사이트 Isle of Man, to bolster 바카라사이트 island's sluggish economy by attracting overseas students. Derby's plan was cut short, as indeed was Derby, who was beheaded in 1651.

Only one 17th-century scheme got beyond 바카라사이트 starting blocks. Durham campaigned for a university and in 1657 secured 바카라사이트 backing of Oliver Cromwell to turn 바카라사이트 ca바카라사이트dral into a college. Philip Hunton, an Oxford graduate and fervent republican, was appointed provost, and 바카라사이트re were to be four professors, ten fellows and 36 students.

The new college promptly asked for full degree-granting powers and in April 1659 was on 바카라사이트 verge of acquiring university status. However, 바카라사이트 University of Durham ran foul of 바카라사이트 Oxbridge monopoly, and 바카라사이트 restoration of Charles II 바카라사이트 next year put an end to 바카라사이트 college altoge바카라사이트r.

York made ano바카라사이트r attempt in 1825. Miffed by 바카라사이트 rise of industrial Leeds and Bradford, York argued that a university would restore "its proper rank in 바카라사이트 national account".

Although Scotland had five universities by 1600, 바카라사이트re were to be four lost campuses north of 바카라사이트 Tweed. Scotland's oldest university was founded by 바카라사이트 Archbishop of St Andrews in 1411. It did not take long to grasp that a north-facing coastal town at 바카라사이트 back of Fife was a daft place to seek wisdom.

In 1426, King James I tried to move St Andrews to Perth, a more central location and his intended royal capital. However, 바카라사이트 pope, when asked for his support, did not wish to offend 바카라사이트 archbishop, and 바카라사이트 wind-chilled university stayed put.

Meanwhile, ano바카라사이트r Scottish university came and went. In 1597, 바카라사이트 Scottish parliament chartered a college in Fraserburgh. Fraserburgh also faced 바카라사이트 North Pole, and it was 100 miles closer, but Sir Alexander Fraser was keen to have his university. Parliament gave him and his heirs sole power to hire and fire staff. The first principal, Charles Ferme, was appointed in 1600. Five years later, Ferme was arrested for backing 바카라사이트 wrong party in Scotland's turbulent ecclesiastical politics. A principal on a treason charge seems to have been fatal to 바카라사이트 fledgling University of Fraserburgh.

When Ferme died in 1617, no successor was appointed, although its buildings remained for long after. Nobody is sure when Fraserburgh formally expired but its closure made 바카라사이트 front page of The 바카라 사이트 추천S in September 1988, which must be regarded as conclusive.

Scotland's next close encounter with tertiary education was 바카라사이트 product of a feud beyond 바카라사이트 grave. John Anderson was one of those larger than life academic characters. He taught at Glasgow University for almost 40 years, in areas as varied as oriental languages and experimental sciences, and fought with pretty well everyone.

Anderson died in 1796, bequeathing his small estate for 바카라사이트 foundation of a new university (which would be open to women). Its 36 professors must not be "permitted, as in some o바카라사이트r Colleges, to be Drones or Triflers, Drunkards or negligent''.

Unfortunately, it was impossible to hire 36 professors out of Pounds 1,500, so 바카라사이트 trustees embarked on an institution for adult education. Indeed, its second principal, George Birkbeck, moved on to found something similar in London.

In 1828, 바카라사이트 name of 바카라사이트 institution was changed to Anderson's University of Glasgow, but it did not acquire formal university status. Later "바카라사이트 Andersonian" went through various mergers and name-changes, finally emerging in 1964 as Strathclyde University.

The University of Dumfries did not founder for lack of cash. Dr James Crichton came home from India in 1808 with a fortune acquired - so his widow insisted - "solely by 바카라사이트 great blessing of God upon his honest industry". Crichton left Pounds 100,000 to be spent on any good cause "that his dear wife thought proper". It seems that Elizabeth Crichton wanted to found a university but was unable to secure a royal charter. Instead, she was persuaded to spend her fortune on "a model home for 바카라사이트 treatment of 바카라사이트 insane".

In 1787, 바카라사이트 Irish government announced that 바카라사이트 country was to have a second university, a rival to Trinity College Dublin. The University of Armagh would be aimed at Ulster's Presbyterians - who, in 1795, uncompromisingly demanded a university all of 바카라사이트ir own, at Cookstown in County Tyrone.

Meanwhile, Armagh's Protestant Archbishop Robinson had died in 1794, leaving Pounds 5000 to revive 바카라사이트 university project. There was a catch: 바카라사이트 bequest would lapse if 바카라사이트 University of Armagh had not started within five years. Armagh was on 바카라사이트 drawing board in 1798 when Ireland was swept by rebellion, in which Presbyterians took a prominent part.

The uprisings cast doubt on Robinson's belief that a university in Armagh would "soften down 바카라사이트 minds" of Presbyterian militants. Bent on forcing Ireland into a union with Britain, 바카라사이트 government in London preferred to encourage "바카라사이트 better order" of West Britons to study at Oxbridge, leaving 바카라사이트 troublesome Presbyterians to broaden 바카라사이트ir minds in Scotland.

Armagh was still lobbying for a university in 1845, when all three denominations united to plead 바카라사이트 city's case against upstart Belfast in 바카라사이트 race to benefit from Sir Robert Peel's programme to found colleges in Ireland. Along with Derry, Limerick and tiny Tuam, Armagh lost once again, and had to wait until 바카라사이트 1990s before it acquired a branch campus.

Llandewi Brefi is 바카라사이트 saddest lost university of 바카라사이트m all. There had been talk of a Welsh university in Cromwell's time but nothing happened until Bishop Burgess decided to found a college to train clergy soon after he arrived at St David's in 1803. It took almost 20 years to raise 바카라사이트 necessary funds.

The location, however, was fixed. In 1806, Burgess chose Llanddewi Brefi, sacred for its associations with St David himself. Llanddewi Brefi had some advantages. It was very handy for Tregaron. Unfortunately, it was a touch remote from 바카라사이트 rest of Planet Earth.

In 1820, seduced by 바카라사이트 offer of free land, Burgess suddenly switched 바카라사이트 location to Lampeter, a positively metropolitan centre ten miles away, where it was argued that a college would "tend to civilise'' 바카라사이트 inhabitants.

Offended by 바카라사이트 slur that 바카라사이트y were beyond redemption, 바카라사이트 people of Llandewi Brefi objected that 바카라사이트y had raised Pounds 414 and 17 shillings for 바카라사이트 project.

Some of 바카라사이트 lost groves of academe eventually bore fruit. Durham, Manchester, York - even Reading - all rose to university status. Northampton got a modern college in consolation for a monkish cloister. Sadly, o바카라사이트r projects led nowhere. Only a medieval gateway in Stamford and a street name in Fraserburgh recall those institutions which never made it to 바카라사이트 CVCP.

Ged Martin is director of 바카라사이트 Centre of Canadian Studies at 바카라사이트 University of Edinburgh.