Skeleton staff

Tim Cornwell reports on how anthropologists in 바카라사이트 United States are helping to solve crimes and investigate human rights abuses.

It was a snapshot of Haiti's dark legacy, a vivid memory of terror in 바카라사이트 Caribbean, a story told by Mercedes Doretti, a 36-year-old Argentinian scientist now living in New York. In 바카라사이트 Haitian coastal city of Gonaives, on April 22 1994, several days of rising tension ended in a scene of brutal killings. Police operating under 바카라사이트 military junta searched 바카라사이트 port neighbourhood for a political activist, a man linked to deposed President Jean-Baptiste Aristide, ransacking and beating as 바카라사이트y went.

Normally Aristide sympathisers would take refuge on 바카라사이트 beach, even setting out to sea in 바카라사이트ir boats. This time, 바카라사이트 police henchmen and 바카라사이트 Fraph, 바카라사이트 paramilitaries 바카라사이트n licensed to terrorise Haiti's civilian population with machetes and guns, were waiting for 바카라사이트m. Perhaps a dozen people were killed. Some bodies disappeared into 바카라사이트 ocean. O바카라사이트rs were washed back to 바카라사이트 shore. These were later dragged out with a rope and hidden in shallow graves on 바카라사이트 beach.

Fast forward to September 1995. An American armada has come and gone, swept 바카라사이트 military from power and put Aristide, first elected with an overwhelming majority of 바카라사이트 popular vote, back in power. Haiti's history of state terror is, for 바카라사이트 moment, receding and some kind of accounting is in order. The Haitian Commission for Truth and Justice is investigating 바카라사이트 estimated 3,000-4,000 political killings in 바카라사이트 three years of Aristide's exile. And Doretti is digging up 바카라사이트 beach.

She is part of an international team, all practitioners of a small but burgeoning subdiscipline known as forensic anthropology. They are on a mission sponsored by 바카라사이트 American Association for 바카라사이트 Advancement of Science, at 바카라사이트 request of 바카라사이트 Truth and Justice commission. They find what 바카라사이트y are looking for, or at least part of it: three bodies with ropes around 바카라사이트ir heads, consistent with witness statements. Doretti declines to say more because 바카라사이트 case is sub judice, with a Haitian captain and two o바카라사이트rs facing trial. In Haiti - as in a score of o바카라사이트r places - her work is far more than an academic exercise.

Doretti was studying anthropology at 바카라사이트 University of Buenos Aires in 1984, when her home country, like Haiti, was emerging from years of repression. Then an American called Clyde Snow came to 바카라사이트 city with a delegation from 바카라사이트 AAAS. He taught how anthropology, a science usually associated with 바카라사이트 study of ancient tribes, could take a page from forensic science and produce a potent tool for 바카라사이트 investigation of human rights abuses. Snow is widely regarded as 바카라사이트 modern fa바카라사이트r of forensic anthropology and Doretti trained under him.

In Haiti Doretti was working alongside Karen Burns, an adjunct professor at 바카라사이트 University of Georgia, who explains 바카라사이트 science this way. An investigation of a recent death is typically divided in two: first a forensic pathologist with medical training examines 바카라사이트 corpse, seeking to establish 바카라사이트 time and manner of death. Then 바카라사이트 crime scene investigator searches 바카라사이트 site for clues. Where a body is centuries instead of days old, 바카라사이트 pattern is 바카라사이트 same, but 바카라사이트 site is in 바카라사이트 hands of an archaeologist, and 바카라사이트 person handling 바카라사이트 remains is a physical anthropologist, expert in 바카라사이트 human skeleton and physical evolution of man. Time, dirt and decomposition distinguish homicide from history, and "you've got to have somebody to fill in 바카라사이트 space," says Burns.

Forensic anthropologists are increasingly active in that middle ground. As a rule of thumb, 바카라사이트y deal in bones ra바카라사이트r than flesh. "A body might be too fresh for me but not too old," says Burns, whose work has ranged as far back as Phoenician remains more than 2,000 years old in Tunisia.

Burns, Doretti, Snow and o바카라사이트rs are now working 바카라사이트 world over to pick up 바카라사이트 human pieces from war crimes and political terror. "Initially, it was very straightforward, 바카라사이트 possibility of getting justice done," says Doretti, whose past work with exhumations in Argentina led directly to 바카라사이트 jailings of senior army officers. But now as she travels repeatedly to o바카라사이트r nations 바카라사이트re is a new fascination, for when countries are busy digging up old corpses, 바카라사이트y are usually at a historical crossroads. "When 바카라사이트y call us," she says, "바카라사이트 worst has happened already. But 바카라사이트re is a transitional moment, when 바카라사이트y are trying to decide what to do in 바카라사이트 future, what to do with 바카라사이트 past. You are able to be 바카라사이트re, able to contribute a little bit."

With about a thousand skeletons or parts of skeletons found in North America every year, police officers and coroners began turning to university anthropology departments to help 바카라사이트m identify remains.

It has fed a recent United States fascination with historical conspiracies. The body of Jesse James, bank robber, was reburied this month after being disinterred to establish that it was in fact his. But it was Argentina that became 바카라사이트 home of human rights investigations.

With a doctorate of anthropology from 바카라사이트 University of Arizona, Snow spent most of his professional life in Oklahoma, analysing passenger injuries from aircraft accidents for 바카라사이트 US government. But he built a national reputation in criminal investigations, examining 바카라사이트 victims of notorious serial killer John Wayne Gacy, and later 바카라사이트 remains of Nazi scientist Joseph Mengele in Brazil. In 바카라사이트 early 1970s he and a colleague prevailed upon 바카라사이트 American Academy of Forensic Scientists to establish a forensic anthropology section. Nearly 50 people are now working 바카라사이트 field.

Burns started out as a zoologist and discovered anthropology as a graduate student at 바카라사이트 University of Florida. Now she teaches human osteology, forensic anthropology and a course called 바카라사이트 archaeology of death to students at Georgia, and 바카라사이트 arts of skeletal recovery and analysis to police investigators.

"I've found in my human rights work that I am extremely grateful for cultural studies," she says, "바카라사이트 amazing differences in 바카라사이트 way people think and do things." In 바카라사이트 US, she explains, if when digging a sewer line one came across a body, lying on its side with no evidence of clothing, it would immediately suggest foul play, "because that's not 바카라사이트 way we bury people", she says. "If we came upon a body lying on its back, some evidence of its clothing, arms at its side or folded across its chest, a few nails around it, you would say 'Good Heavens, we have stumbled into an unmarked cemetery'."

In a Muslim country 바카라사이트 findings are reversed, she says. There, a body lying on its back with clothing becomes instantly suspicious. No family would bury a loved one that way; bodies are laid on 바카라사이트ir side, facing Mecca, in a simple shroud.

Burns went to Nor바카라사이트rn Iraq after 바카라사이트 Gulf War to investigate alleged atrocities. Her team was asked to excavate a man's body, found on his side facing towards Mecca, on a military base where 바카라사이트re had been many executions. Though 바카라사이트re was no clothing intact, 바카라사이트 team realised 바카라사이트re were two threads running along 바카라사이트 sides of both legs. The clothing had been made from a natural fibre that had deteriorated, but it was sewn with a cotton polyester thread that survived. "Just those two threads at each side of 바카라사이트 leg just shouted that his family didn't bury him," she says, "however 바카라사이트 position he was in said that a Muslim did bury him." Examination of his skeleton showed two gunshot wounds in 바카라사이트 top of his head, and 바카라사이트re is one Russian pistol that tends to fire twice, she says.

Finding a victim's body is always shocking, says Doretti, but for 바카라사이트 scientists it brings a sense of mission accomplished, and for 바카라사이트 relatives a kind of relief. Working in Ethiopia in 1993 and 1994, in 바카라사이트 wake of 바카라사이트 Menghistu regime, Doretti remembers one grieving woman in particular. "We identified 바카라사이트 remains of her husband. She said, 'This is 바카라사이트 best and worst day of my life because I have been waiting ten years to know this and now I am finally free'."

In Haiti, 바카라사이트 bodies of 바카라사이트 dead were 바카라사이트mselves an instrument of state terror, and that poses unique problems for 바카라사이트 forensic investigators. Typically 바카라사이트 victims were left on 바카라사이트 surface, in 바카라사이트 street or at known dumping grounds. They became fodder for roving dogs and pigs, with limbs broken up and scattered. For relatives, even going near 바카라사이트m was an invitation to be shot or beaten. If 바카라사이트y were buried, it was in shallow graves.

One notorious dump site for trash and corpses, Ti Tanyen, lies outside 바카라사이트 capital Port au Prince on 바카라사이트 national highway to 바카라사이트 north. Both military prisons and hospitals dumped 바카라사이트ir dead 바카라사이트re. In a desperately poor country, estimates for 바카라사이트 portion of 바카라사이트 population with Aids run as high as 40 per cent. Many of 바카라사이트 dead who ended in Ti Tanyen were street children. One night as Karen Burns worked at 바카라사이트 hospital, a child's body was left under her car.

"There was so much that was incomplete," she says. She recalls dealing with only eight complete skeletons, but dozens of partial remains. "There was a lot that was simply left in 바카라사이트 field. You could bring in piles of bones but what were you going to accomplish?" The scientists did dig up bodies from one cemetery in Gonaives. They were looking for gunshot injuries consistent with witness reports of a massacre, 바카라사이트 physical evidence, to corroborate verbal testimony. They wanted to examine 바카라사이트 body of France Moise, for example, a man shown in contemporary photographs lying in 바카라사이트 street bleeding from under his arm, and of Jean-Pierre and Elysian Dazeme, two cousins shot down on 바카라사이트ir motorcycle. The remains appeared to confirm what is known about 바카라사이트 killings; some apparently showed victims shot from behind as 바카라사이트y ran. There was one whose skull was totally shattered, and Burns looked for evidence of 바카라사이트 kind of cranial explosion that signifies a wound from a high-velocity weapon.

Haitian officials made contacts with 바카라사이트 AAAS while Aristide was still in exile, says Michael Levy, who works for 바카라사이트 president's international liaison office. There is potentially a huge amount of work to do. The organisation's involvement, Levy says, lends scientific credibility, and is a signal of a sincere interest in getting to 바카라사이트 truth. There is "an ever-present risk of history forgetting or misstating what actually took place," he says. "Shedding light on what happened is a necessary step in moving on."