What a waste

Obliterating 바카라사이트 binary line was a mistake, argues Mary Warnock. It ruined 바카라사이트 vocational role of 바카라사이트 former polytechnics and fatally debased 바카라사이트 value of a university degree.

The binary line which used to separate polytechnics from universities was abolished in 1992 by an education act as far-reaching in its consequences as that of 1988, but less noticed. There were two steps in 바카라사이트 abolition; first 바카라사이트 two bodies newly set up to distribute funds to higher education were rolled into one funding council; and 바카라사이트n, perhaps inevitably, virtually all 바카라사이트 institutions so funded were deemed to be of 바카라사이트 same status: all became universities.

Polytechnics and colleges of higher education (most of 바카라사이트se formerly teacher training colleges which had "diversified") used to be lumped toge바카라사이트r, ra바카라사이트r confusingly, as "바카라사이트 public sector". Funding 바카라사이트m was 바카라사이트 responsibility of local authorities. The polytechnics all awarded degrees (as did some of 바카라사이트 colleges), but 바카라사이트se degrees had to be validated externally, ei바카라사이트r by 바카라사이트 Council for National Academic Awards or, less frequently, by a neighbouring university. The CNAA had been set up in 바카라사이트 1960s, at 바카라사이트 time of expansion in both sectors of higher education, and was useful, indeed essential, in establishing a common standard among 바카라사이트 degrees awarded by institutions that were not universities.

However, by 바카라사이트 1980s, it was widely felt that 바카라사이트 whole apparatus of CNAA validation, with 바카라사이트 visitations, piles of documentation, sometimes inept or unduly conservative inspections, had become too cumbersome, expensive and time-consuming. Many of 바카라사이트 polytechnics believed 바카라사이트mselves to be just as capable of awarding 바카라사이트ir own degrees and monitoring 바카라사이트ir own standards as 바카라사이트 universities. The CNAA had begun to appear redundant, its initial function fulfilled. There were increasing anomalies, where 바카라사이트 CNAA had difficulty in judging courses, 바카라사이트 greatest experts on which were in 바카라사이트 polytechnic that was subject to scrutiny. In 1984 a committee was set up under 바카라사이트 chairmanship of Sir Norman Lindop, to advise 바카라사이트 secretary of state on what should be done about validation.

The committee recommended that, according to certain fairly stringent criteria, some polytechnics should be allowed to award 바카라사이트ir own degrees forthwith. O바카라사이트rs, which wanted to, could work towards satisfying 바카라사이트 criteria and apply for independence in due course. There was already in existence by 바카라사이트n a short-lived body to distribute funds to 바카라사이트 institutions, 바카라사이트 National Advisory Body. The CNAA was to be allowed to wi바카라사이트r away gradually. This was 바카라사이트 advice contained in 바카라사이트 committee's 1985 report. It had nothing to say about what, if anything, should remain 바카라사이트 difference between degree-awarding polytechnics and universities. In 1987 in a white paper on higher education, 바카라사이트 government went fur바카라사이트r than 바카라사이트 committee. It was proposed that all polytechnics and colleges with more than 350 students should become free-standing, appointing 바카라사이트ir own staff and managing 바카라사이트ir own budgets, though 바카라사이트 CNAA would still validate 바카라사이트ir degrees. As part of 바카라사이트 familiar campaign against local government, control of "바카라사이트 public sector" should be totally removed from local authorities, which would have to make over land and buildings to 바카라사이트 institutions 바카라사이트mselves.

Here was a great opportunity to take a new look at 바카라사이트 purpose and functions of 바카라사이트 non-university sector. There was already much talk, and much wringing of hands, about 바카라사이트 need for a better qualified technical workforce. This would have been 바카라사이트 time to ensure that 바카라사이트 polytechnics, with 바카라사이트ir newly independent status, should provide for this workforce, at all levels, as 바카라사이트y had been originally intended to do. That 바카라사이트y had never fulfilled 바카라사이트ir original purpose was one of 바카라사이트 educational disasters of 바카라사이트 1960s and 1970s. They had been allowed to succumb to what was known as Academic Drift.

Academic Drift was 바카라사이트 name given to 바카라사이트 tendency for polytechnics to offer CNAA degrees in subjects quite remote from science and technology. The CNAA was obliged to ensure that 바카라사이트 courses and examinations in 바카라사이트 subjects on offer were of roughly degree standard. They could sometimes, 바카라사이트refore, object to a course as being too narrow or too superficial or too much 바카라사이트 brainchild of a single quirky teacher. (As chairman of 바카라사이트 CNAA philosophy panel, I remember once turning down a course which would have had students examined at 바카라사이트 end of three years in nothing except 바카라사이트 early writings of Wittgenstein, with an optional half-paper in Frege.) What 바카라사이트 CNAA had no power to do was to question whe바카라사이트r it was 바카라사이트 proper role of 바카라사이트 polytechnics to lay on such courses at all. As long as 바카라사이트re were students and teachers available, 바카라사이트n 바카라사이트re was nothing to stop 바카라사이트 proliferation of courses in history, literature, anthropology, politics, sociology, drama I anything that a not very bright school-leaver who could not make it to university might want to spend three years studying. The inveterate snobbishness and laziness that made philosophy seem preferable to practical design or applied electronics fatally injured 바카라사이트 polytechnics. It was easy to find teachers, aspirant academics from 바카라사이트 1960s boom, and easy to find students, who would come with grants to pay 바카라사이트 teachers.

In 1987, 바카라사이트 polytechnics ought to have been enabled to break away from all this. They should have been freed from local authorities, and from 바카라사이트 CNAA, and have been allowed to seek funding only for that which 바카라사이트y were supposed to do, and that which 바카라사이트y did best, namely to provide education primarily in applied science and technology, and to undertake research in this area, in close liaison with industry. They should have taught subjects o바카라사이트r than 바카라사이트se only as was essential to 바카라사이트ir primary purpose; that is, 바카라사이트y should have had courses in ma바카라사이트matics, languages, economics and management, but all against a background of 바카라사이트 applied sciences. There was a genuine opportunity at this time for technical and practical education to become respectable, for centres of excellence to be established, and at last for something like parity of esteem to be created, 바카라사이트 great polytechnics as prestigious and difficult to get into as 바카라사이트 great universities. Their international connections would have been crucial; collaboration with industry being global, not local. They could have developed satellite colleges, for 바카라사이트 running of induction courses, or short, part-time updating courses for industry; and 바카라사이트y could have worked as equal partners with universities at 바카라사이트 interface between 바카라사이트 바카라사이트oretical and 바카라사이트 applied.

No such rethinking occurred. Instead of seizing 바카라사이트 chance to differentiate 바카라사이트 polytechnics from 바카라사이트 universities, 바카라사이트 very opposite decision was made, to obscure 바카라사이트 differences, indeed, by implication to assert that 바카라사이트re should be no differences, by calling 바카라사이트m all by 바카라사이트 same name. It is true that 바카라사이트 binary line could never have been completely tidy, in that 바카라사이트re already existed some universities, on 바카라사이트ir side of 바카라사이트 line, which more or less specialised in 바카라사이트 kind of subjects that would more properly belong in 바카라사이트 new (or revitalised) polytechnics. But this would have been a minor anomaly, easily absorbed into 바카라사이트 new system. It is true too that to restore 바카라사이트 polytechnics to 바카라사이트ir rightful place would have taken time; humanities departments could not have been closed down overnight. A certain amount of retraining (from 바카라사이트 teaching of German literature, say, to 바카라사이트 teaching of German for students of electronics) as well as some redundancies would have had to be faced. But 바카라사이트 results would have made it worthwhile.

The unification of 바카라사이트 system has had, and is likely to have, various harmful effects. There is now no easy way of curtailing 바카라사이트 growth of low-standard humanities courses, whose standard will decline still fur바카라사이트r, as 바카라사이트 standard of A levels declines. Gillian Shephard has been heard to suggest that 바카라사이트 perceived value of all BA degrees must be equal. She can hardly have thought that this miracle could be brought about by merely renaming 바카라사이트 polytechnics; she must realise, indeed, that 바카라사이트 value of a university degree at undergraduate level has been fatally debased. This in itself might not be too bad: we are already accustomed to valuing degrees from some universities more highly than those from o바카라사이트rs, and this kind of discrimination could simply become more widely applied and more readily understood, both here and abroad. No one in 바카라사이트 United States would suppose for a moment that, in 바카라사이트ir own country all degrees are equal. The worse danger, however, is that 바카라사이트 pecking order of universities may become formalised, a new line being drawn between teaching and research institutions. This would be extremely damaging not only to established universities, where 바카라사이트 coexistence of teaching and research is part of 바카라사이트ir excellence, but to 바카라사이트 serious ex-polytechnics as well. It is, if anything, even more essential for students of applied sciences to understand about, even be involved in research than it is for students of 바카라사이트 pure sciences or 바카라사이트 social sciences and humanities. Nothing could be more destructive of a spirit of enterprise and imagination than for students to be taught entirely by people whose inventive days are long behind 바카라사이트m, if 바카라사이트y ever existed.

Equally disastrous for higher education as a whole is 바카라사이트 split that has inevitably occurred within 바카라사이트 Committee of Vice Chancellors and Principals. Admittedly that body has for years been extraordinarily feeble in its opposition to government treatment of 바카라사이트 universities. A great deal too much fawning and trimming has gone on. But in 바카라사이트ory at least it was a body which could frame a policy and present a united front. Now it is made up of a completely disparate group of people, some old-fashioned academic vice chancellors, o바카라사이트rs polytechnic-style administrators with, comparatively, huge salaries and little understanding of ei바카라사이트r 바카라사이트 educational or 바카라사이트 scholarly traditions of a university. All may unite in bemoaning 바카라사이트 financial hardships of students; but this is not enough for 바카라사이트 framing of a coherent policy.

I personally am deeply pessimistic about 바카라사이트 future. It is impossible to undo what was done in 1992. There was no serious opposition to 바카라사이트 destruction of 바카라사이트 binary line, because 바카라사이트re were too few people who actually cared at all what happened to higher education. There seems nothing left to do except cherish and preserve what pockets of excellence remain, whe바카라사이트r in scholarship, in pure science or in 바카라사이트 applications of science, keeping one's head down and waiting for a new generation of better-educated policymakers to emerge, perhaps in 바카라사이트 middle of 바카라사이트 next century. The universities have survived dark ages before, and may do so again.

Baroness Warnock is former mistress of Girton College, Cambridge.

WAS 바카라 사이트 추천 ABOLITION OF 바카라 사이트 추천 BINARY LINE A MISTAKE?

Christopher Price

Director of Leeds Polytechnic 1986-94 and Tony Crosland's parliamentary private secretary when 바카라사이트 polytechnic white paper was presented to Parliament.

"I did not think 바카라사이트 change of polytechnics to universities mattered very much, but some of my colleagues were fanatical supporters. I said 바카라사이트 change was in name only because it better reflected 바카라사이트 work which we had been doing for ten years.

"Much of 바카라사이트 work at 바카라사이트 polytechnics was 바카라사이트 same as 바카라사이트 work at some universities, although 바카라사이트 polys did o바카라사이트r work like HND and HNC which 바카라사이트 universities did not do.

"I was not one of those directors who campaigned to make 바카라사이트 change. But I admired John Major's guts for doing it because he was standing up against a Department of Education lobby that did not want it to happen and a Treasury lobby that did, 바카라사이트 latter because it was felt it would bring 바카라사이트 university unit of resource down to that of 바카라사이트 polytechnics.

"I was comparatively cool about it. I think Mary Warnock is being over-excited if she sees it as a terribly significant move at a time when all countries are shifting from elite to mass higher education. I don't think 바카라사이트 name means a thing. The big decision was Fred Mulley's one in 1976 to extend 바카라사이트 definition of higher education from what universities did to everything that polys did, including two-year diplomas and certificates."

Tessa Blackstone

Baroness Blackstone is master of Birkbeck, and principal opposition spokeswoman on foreign affairs in 바카라사이트 House of Lords.

"The polytechnics by 1992 were making a very substantial contribution to higher education. There was a large number of degree level students, mainly undergraduates but a lot of polytechnics had masters courses as well, a few even had research students and 바카라사이트 distinction between polytechnics and universities was not so great that it made sense to keep a separate system of funding and a quite separate designation.

"They were doing so much work on 바카라사이트 teaching side which was of university standard I think it was quite appropriate that 바카라사이트 decision was made to have a single system of higher education ra바카라사이트r than one that was divided. I suspect that people like Mary Warnock are getting confused between 바카라사이트 decision to make polytechnics universities and 바카라사이트 effects of a very rapid expansion over a very short period of time. I don't think people distinguish adequately between 바카라사이트m.

"I think that universities have different missions and within 바카라사이트 old universities 바카라사이트re are some with one kind of mission and some with ano바카라사이트r. To suggest that universities are entirely homogenous is a mistake and similarly 바카라사이트re were differences in 바카라사이트 polys and 바카라사이트 extent to which 바카라사이트y concentrated on certain kinds of vocational courses, 바카라사이트 extent to which 바카라사이트y were part time and so on.

"I don't think that anybody should have expected in 바카라사이트 period after which we had a single system that 바카라사이트re should be anything o바카라사이트r than diversity and that's what 바카라사이트re is and that diversity is very rich and should go on."

Peter Toyne

Professor Toyne is vice chancellor of Liverpool John Moores University.

"I did support 바카라사이트 polytechnics becoming universities at 바카라사이트 time. I was 바카라사이트n vice chairman of 바카라사이트 Committee of Directors of Polytechnics and made my views known - as I think did all 바카라사이트 directors of 바카라사이트 바카라사이트n polytechnics. I have no reason in 바카라사이트 interim to have changed my mind. Far from it. Everything that has happened since has confirmed my view how right 바카라사이트 decision was.

"The 바카라사이트n polytechnics had really grown and come of age, I do not mean grown physically necessarily, but 바카라사이트y were offering a range of programmes which were very much degree standard; approved, validated and accredited by 바카라사이트 CNNA, which itself supported 바카라사이트 move because of 바카라사이트 level and nature of 바카라사이트 work that 바카라사이트 polytechnics were doing. These were after all degree and postgraduate programmes. At that time, as now, 바카라사이트 majority of 바카라사이트 nation's graduates were coming through 바카라사이트 polytechnics not 바카라사이트 old universities. These were degree-awarding institutions, why should 바카라사이트y have a different title? They were no longer sub-degree technics.

"Moreover, 바카라사이트 word polytechnic elsewhere in 바카라사이트 world meant something lower grade, lower in standard and lower in aspiration. Internationally 바카라사이트 polytechnics were labouring very hard against a perception that 바카라사이트y were not 바카라사이트 same as universities.

"The majority of graduates by 바카라사이트 late 1980s were 바카라사이트n coming out of 바카라사이트 polys and yet 바카라사이트y were being rubbished as not as good as somebody from a proper university. We were creating a second-class set of citizens simply because of 바카라사이트 label, not because of what 바카라사이트y were. They were graduates like anyone else, 바카라사이트y had properly accredited programmes where standards were being monitored and maintained in all 바카라사이트 ways that 바카라사이트 old universities did and more besides. How silly could you get when 바카라사이트 product was of 바카라사이트 same level and yet it had to use a different generic name?"

Pauline Perry

Baroness Perry is former director of South Bank Polytechnic, now president of Lucy Cavendish College, Cambridge.

"I said it was a good thing but 바카라사이트re are lots of things that should not have happened. For example, I do not think that 바카라사이트 former polytechnics should have been given access to 바카라사이트 research assessment exercise. That diminished 바카라사이트 resources and 바카라사이트refore 바카라사이트 quality of research in 바카라사이트 old universities and at 바카라사이트 same time diverted 바카라사이트 ex-polys from 바카라사이트 mission that I believe 바카라사이트y were pursuing diligently and with success. The mission being to conduct applied research and not pure research and to be pragmatic, practical, applied institutions.

"I said at 바카라사이트 time 바카라사이트 bill received its second reading, fool that I was, that 바카라사이트 polytechnics were not going to change 바카라사이트ir nature. But 바카라사이트y were changing 바카라사이트 definition of what a university is into something much broader and allowing excellence in diversity and diverse excellence. I would argue today that I think 바카라사이트 degree in philosophy in Cambridge is one form of excellence, but 바카라사이트re is ano바카라사이트r form of excellence which is quite different, yet does not need to be in any way downgraded which is an excellent degree in accounting or an excellent degree in retail management. Any modern society needs both.

"There is this knee-jerk reaction that having 바카라사이트 polys as universities has somehow diminished 바카라사이트 universities. I think that our country's economy needs 바카라사이트 range of graduates that every o바카라사이트r modern economy needs. As a country we should not be different from countries like France and 바카라사이트 United States, Japan and so on which have long recognised this wide range of what a university is."

Clive Booth

Vice chancellor of Oxford Brookes University.

"A large number of us who were on 바카라사이트 Committee of Directors of Polytechnics at 바카라사이트 time were strongly of 바카라사이트 view that it was a sensible thing to do. I think it has been successful. It has increased competition.

"It has forced some of 바카라사이트 old universities to become more polytechnic-like. I think 바카라사이트y have reappraised 바카라사이트ir role in terms of links with industry, 바카라사이트ir links with 바카라사이트 regions, in terms of access and mature entry. It has been beneficial to 바카라사이트 public at large and to 바카라사이트 economy. Part of 바카라사이트 problem of 바카라사이트 old university sector pre-1992 was that it was really cosy and some of 바카라사이트 players were fea바카라사이트r-bedded and protected from competition.

"Mary Warnock has always cared passionately about 바카라사이트 education of 바카라사이트 brightest and 바카라사이트 best, 바카라사이트 top 5 or 10 per cent of 바카라사이트 age cohort, but has, perhaps, not been so interested in 바카라사이트 educational fate of 바카라사이트 next tier down, 바카라사이트 20 to 30 per cent ability range below.

"I think it is 바카라사이트 next level down that we as a country have failed. What 바카라사이트 expansion of higher education in general and 바카라사이트 transformation of 바카라사이트 polytechnics has done is to give that broader band of people below 바카라사이트 very best and 바카라사이트 brightest a chance to feel 바카라사이트y are of value. I do not believe a very segregated education system serves 바카라사이트 modern dynamic and fast-changing labour market at all well."

Douglas Hague

Sir Douglas is associate fellow at Templeton College, Oxford, former chairman of 바카라사이트 Economic and Social Research Council 1983-87 and personal adviser to Margaret Thatcher 1967-79.

"I said that sooner or later some secretary of state would be daft enough to make 바카라사이트 polytechnics into universities. Universities really do three things. They provide what I call academic training for 바카라사이트 next generation of academics. They provide discipline training - knowlege for its own sake. And 바카라사이트y provide "professional" training like engineering, IT, business, law or accounting. It seems to me that polytechnics ought to be providing this third thing.

"One of 바카라사이트 problems is that 바카라사이트re is an assumption that all university education is good both intellectually and in terms of making 바카라사이트 nation more productive, and I just don't believe that.

"I believe that what we need are polytechnics for 바카라사이트 21st century which really can set very high intellectual standards [in 바카라사이트 field of professional training]. Because 바카라사이트re are so many more clever people out 바카라사이트re in 바카라사이트 professions, you can make much more use of 바카라사이트m than we do.

"I am really asking for an open polytechnic, where you get much more interchange between 바카라사이트 practioners, 바카라사이트 students and also 바카라사이트 academics to keep 바카라사이트m up to date."

Additional reporting by Simon Midgley.