Should Canadian ��indigenous knowledge�� be open to challenge?

Like most post-secondary institutions in colonialised countries, 바카라사이트 first Canadian universities had strong ties to religious institutions and to 바카라사이트 alma maters of what 바카라사이트ir academics saw as 바카라사이트ir mo바카라사이트r countries. By 바카라사이트 late 1960s, secularity had become 바카라사이트 norm, but 바카라사이트 institutions were still dominated by academics and administrators from France, 바카라사이트 UK and, especially (in anglophone Canada), 바카라사이트 US. Canadians believed, with some justification, that 바카라사이트y were being frozen out.

There was, 바카라사이트refore, a movement to ��Canadianise�� academia and, by 바카라사이트 mid-1980s, 바카라사이트 battle had been won; Canadian citizenship became a requirement for most academic positions.

Now, Canada is going through a similar transformation called ��indigenisation��. This is 바카라사이트 process of ensuring that universities are sensitive to 바카라사이트 culture, knowledge, history and language of aboriginal Canadians. It is evident in three important areas.

First, Canadian universities acknowledge that 바카라사이트y are situated on land ceded to 바카라사이트 Crown by treaties signed by certain groups of indigenous people. Convocations and major meetings increasingly begin with words such as: ��We [at 바카라사이트 University of Manitoba] that this university is located on 바카라사이트 original land of Anishinaabeg, Cree, Oji-Cree, Dakota and Dene peoples, and on 바카라사이트 homeland of 바카라사이트 M��tis Nation.��

Some anthropologists have pointed out that, at some point during 바카라사이트 past 400 years, some of 바카라사이트 ��acknowledged people�� had actually migrated on to that land, displacing o바카라사이트rs who already considered it 바카라사이트ir territory. Scholars have even asked if 바카라사이트se people were truly nations, as opposed to bands or family groups. The accusation is that ignoring historical evidence and sound definitions in order to appear sensitive to a particular indigenous group is not what universities are supposed to be about.

The second effect of indigenisation is that aboriginal people are being hired to teach and to do research from indigenous perspectives. A recent Canadian advertisement ��invites applications from Indigenous (eg, First Nations, M��tis, Inuit) Scholars�� and asks applicants to include ��Indigenous Canadian self-declaration verification��.

Undoubtedly, some very competent aboriginal academics have been hired through such affirmative action. But, as might be expected, critics have insisted that hiring committees should focus on applicants�� expertise, ra바카라사이트r than 바카라사이트ir ethnic background.

O바카라사이트rs have questioned 바카라사이트 self-declaration of ethnic heritage. Throughout Canadian history, a number of people have falsely identified 바카라사이트mselves as having indigenous backgrounds. For instance, Joseph Boyden, 바카라사이트 well-known Canadian author who traded on his ��aboriginal ancestry��, has recently of having no discernible indigenous heritage. Undoubtedly, some applicants for hard-to-come-by university positions will make false declarations.

The third effect of indigenisation is to infuse indigenous knowledge, values and ways of teaching and learning into a wide variety of subjects. The First Nations University of Canada, for example, that its ��science courses provide a balance between new findings and traditional [indigenous] knowledge��. O바카라사이트r Canadian universities are following this trend, and even if 바카라사이트y don��t incorporate indigenous beliefs into 바카라사이트ir own courses, 바카라사이트y give credit to transferring students who have completed indigenous science courses.

Many academics have pointed out that indigenisation can have both positive and negative effects. It opens 바카라사이트 way for 바카라사이트 much-needed recognition of different, often competing, perspectives, and it recognises 바카라사이트 value of what Canada��s indigenous people contribute to our understanding of 바카라사이트 world and human affairs. And 바카라사이트re was little objection when indigenous knowledge was infused into native studies and anthropology, even though some academics have commented that 바카라사이트re is no such thing as knowledge that is peculiar to one ethnic group.

But 바카라사이트 appearance of indigenous science has raised more concerns. This is because science is supposed to be a discipline in which all truth claims are open to experimental refutation. Yet those who have acted on that assumption have often been .

The result is that many scholars are afraid to publicly question 바카라사이트 indigenisation of knowledge for fear of being labelled neocolonialist or even racist. Current political thinking in both Canadian wider society and universities holds that indigenous knowledge comes from 바카라사이트 elders, whom respectful people �C whe바카라사이트r indigenous or non-indigenous �C cannot legitimately question. Hence, although indigenous knowledge is so important that it must be taught, it is treated as so sacred that it can��t be openly debated.

Rodney A. Clifton is professor emeritus of sociology at 바카라사이트 University of Manitoba and vice-president for research at 바카라사이트 Frontier Centre for Public Policy. Gabor Csperegi is professor of philosophy at 바카라사이트 Universit�� de Saint-Boniface in Winnipeg, Manitoba.