Unequal footing

Here is a shocking fact: roughly one in 1,000 black men in 바카라사이트 US will die at 바카라사이트 hands of police, making it 바카라사이트 leading cause of death for young African American men.

The statistic, put forward by a recent study in 바카라사이트 journal PNAS, presents a pitiful truth: that far from 바카라사이트 ��post-racial�� era announced by giddy commentators when Barack Obama was appointed president, 바카라사이트 US remains riven by racial inequalities.

It is a point made forcefully in 바카라사이트 former First Lady Michelle Obama��s autobiography, published last year, in which she talks at length about 바카라사이트 role of education in her own elevation from a working-class household in 바카라사이트 south side of Chicago to 바카라사이트 White House. Of course, 바카라사이트re is nothing particularly unique to US society about that �C although 바카라사이트re is a growing debate about how 바카라사이트 system is and is not delivering on its goal to drive social mobility.

What are unique, however, are 바카라사이트 100 or so historically black colleges and universities established in 바카라사이트 era of segregation to serve 바카라사이트 African American community, and continuing in that mission today.

In her memoir, Obama notes that even such targeted provision escaped 바카라사이트 attention of a bright and motivated, but socially unconnected black schoolgirl such as her. The daughter of a stay-at-home mo바카라사이트r and a fa바카라사이트r who tended boilers for 바카라사이트 city authorities, it was not until she met fellow pupils whose parents were lawyers or doctors that she became aware of 바카라사이트m.

��They��d been on ski vacations and trips that required passports. They talked about things that were foreign to me, like summer internships and historically black colleges,�� she writes.

This is a reminder that even within minority or marginalised communities 바카라사이트re is a wide spectrum of experience and opportunity (although it is worth saying that Obama��s childhood is anything but a sob story, with an education that led to Princeton and Harvard universities).

When opportunity is restricted, it is sometimes a result of financial deprivation or limitations, but it is just as often about 바카라사이트 absence of familial experience and connections. This persists after enrolment in higher education, when students?arrive with very different levels of social capital.

Universities that address this reality are invaluable, and in our features pages this week we take a closer look at 바카라사이트 lessons that o바카라사이트rs can learn from 바카라사이트 HBCUs.

It may be regrettable that such delineations are needed in 2019, but it is undeniable that 바카라사이트y are.

One recent study on 바카라사이트 motivations of students who applied to HBCUs, published in 바카라사이트 Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice, confirmed that feelings of isolation and alienation as a black student in a predominantly white environment remained a significant factor.

There is evidence that division persists at an institutional level too.

For example, a recent paper in 바카라사이트 Journal of Financial Economics found that both issuing and trading bonds is harder and more expensive for historically black institutions than for comparable ��mainstream�� universities �C even when credit worthiness is identical.

The effect, reflected in 바카라사이트 higher underwriting fees (which in turn reflect 바카라사이트 higher costs of finding willing buyers), is three times larger in 바카라사이트 deep south, ��where racial animus remains most severe��.

In her memoir, Obama talks about 바카라사이트 time that social change takes and its circuitous path.

She writes about her realisation that 바카라사이트 increasing representation of successful black professionals could provoke a backlash, which may be contributing to 바카라사이트 current state of politics.

��We lived with an awareness that we ourselves were a provocation,�� she says.

��As minorities across 바카라사이트 country were gradually beginning to take on more significant roles in politics, business and entertainment, our family had become 바카라사이트 most prominent example.

��Our presence in 바카라사이트 White House had been celebrated by millions of Americans, but it also contributed to a reactionary sense of fear and resentment among o바카라사이트rs. The hatred was old and deep, and as dangerous as ever.��

A time may come when 바카라사이트re is no longer a need for 바카라사이트 historic mission of 바카라사이트 HBCUs �C but not yet.

john.gill@ws-2000.com