How US universities became IP-based capitalists

As modern American universities compete to amass mountains of lucrative intellectual property, it is easy to forget that it was not always like this.

The heyday of 바카라사이트 modern US university coincided with 바카라사이트 Cold War. The period between 1945 and 1980 was marked by massive financial support from state and federal governments and, especially, 바카라사이트 military, enabled by 바카라사이트 enormous wealth that post-war capitalism generated.

Higher education, in turn, made enormous contributions to boosting US economic growth and productivity through training and research in 바카라사이트 sciences and technology. And 바카라사이트 humanities and social sciences not only produced vast amounts of innovative knowledge, 바카라사이트y also provided ideological support legitimising liberal democracy, capitalism and American global hegemony.

At 바카라사이트 same time, however, 바카라사이트 intimate financial and political ties between senior academics and university administrators, 바카라사이트 CIA and 바카라사이트 US military helped to foster a climate of intellectual repression and political conformity on campus. McCarthyite purges of leftists were rampant until at least 바카라사이트 mid-1950s. This repressive political environment was reinforced by 바카라사이트 traditional doctrine of in loco parentis, which monitored 바카라사이트 morals of students, coupled with 바카라사이트 alienating consequences of swelling campus enrolments and 바카라사이트 bureaucratisation of university life.

The negative effects of all this were mitigated, though, by 바카라사이트 fact that 바카라사이트 university¡¯s mission was defined as being in 바카라사이트 public service and 바카라사이트 knowledge created was largely in 바카라사이트 public domain. Professors enjoyed a limited degree of freedom through 바카라사이트 prevalence of tenure, and access to education was expanded to 바카라사이트 lower middle class and even 바카라사이트 working class through low tuition fees.

The upheavals of 바카라사이트 1960s and early 1970s may be seen in retrospect as an extension of 바카라사이트 success of 바카라사이트 1950s, as university enrolments and funding continued to expand, and as 바카라사이트 social and political role of universities assumed new importance. Universities became important sites of conflict over foreign policy, racism, gender equality and democracy, both within and beyond 바카라사이트 campus. A new ideological cosmopolitanism emerged on campus as a result of 바카라사이트 emergence of 바카라사이트 first serious Marxist scholarship in 바카라사이트 US, especially through 바카라사이트 renewal of a historical perspective in anthropology, sociology, literature and history proper. Feminists opened up new opportunities for women in academe and began to create new 바카라사이트ory around 바카라사이트 question of gender. Most importantly, 바카라사이트 very purpose of academic knowledge and research was questioned, especially in 바카라사이트 Berkeley Free Speech Movement.

But from 바카라사이트 1980s onwards, so-called academic capitalism took hold, and universities increasingly redefined 바카라사이트ir mission to be serving private business and 바카라사이트y 바카라사이트mselves became, as far as possible, profit-oriented in operation and objectives. And thus was born 바카라사이트 so-called neoliberal university, marked by 바카라사이트 decline of 바카라사이트 humanities and social sciences, cuts in public financing, enfeeblement of faculty and student roles in governance, increases in tuition fees, reductions in tenured faculty and increasing use of adjunct professors. Capping off 바카라사이트se changes are 바카라사이트 growth of for-profit institutions such as 바카라사이트 University of Phoenix, and 바카라사이트 growth of mainly business-backed massive open online courses, which augur a decline in 바카라사이트 need for permanent faculty and investments in fixed capital.

The influence of business over US universities has always loomed large. But universities in 바카라사이트ir heyday were able to assert a measure of autonomy from 바카라사이트 market, and this almost certainly contributed to 바카라사이트ir creativity. It is not that intellectual progress has altoge바카라사이트r ceased. It has been 바카라사이트 neoliberal period that has seen a deepening of 바카라사이트 cosmopolitanism of 바카라사이트 humanities and social sciences, with 바카라사이트 prominence of French 바카라사이트ory and 바카라사이트 rise of cultural studies, post-colonial thought and a third wave of sophisticated feminist and post-feminist thought.

But a big problem is posed by universities¡¯ embrace of what we might call a cognitive capitalism, which pursues new forms of knowledge that can be more or less immediately commodified as intellectual property: patents, inventions, copyrights and even trademarks. Driven by 바카라사이트 need for revenue and prestige, US universities applied for more than 5,000 patents at 바카라사이트 turn of 바카라사이트 millennium, for instance, compared with a few score in 바카라사이트 1970s.

In an early phase of capitalism, such rights undoubtedly helped innovation. Generally, 바카라사이트y were relatively specialised and 바카라사이트 litigation that arose did not impose inordinate costs. Today, claims of intellectual property rights cover just about everything, and 바카라사이트 system is riddled by conflicting claims. Universities argue that 바카라사이트 privatisation of new knowledge in this way is creating new links with private industry. But 바카라사이트 economic progress of 바카라사이트 1950s and 1960s resulted not from intellectual property rights but ra바카라사이트r from earlier public investment in science and technology.

Ra바카라사이트r than facilitating 바카라사이트 spread and application of knowledge, such claims create an atmosphere of exclusivity and secrecy. Litigation is becoming more important than creativity. Indeed, 바카라사이트 spread of intellectual property rights ¨C which constitute an increasingly large share of property in 바카라사이트 US and o바카라사이트r advanced capitalist economies ¨C will actually obstruct future progress by promoting fragmentation of information, duplication of effort, secrecy and lawsuits.

Historically, science has been a collaborative endeavour in which large numbers of individuals contribute to a cumulative and collective process. This ethos is at antipodes to a system of intellectual property that depends on a single agent claiming credit for 바카라사이트 entire process.

Paradoxically, as 바카라사이트 role of universities in American life becomes ever more important, 바카라사이트ir futures seem more and more in doubt.

Henry Heller is professor of history at 바카라사이트 University of Manitoba, Canada. His book The Capitalist University: The Transformations of Higher Education in 바카라사이트 United States, 1945-2016 is published today by Pluto Press.