Are universities to blame for rising youth unemployment in Asia?

Few people, if any, saw Sheikh Hasina¡¯s downfall coming. Despite her longstanding grip on control, 바카라사이트 end came quickly for Bangladesh¡¯s autocratic leader as 바카라사이트 student protests that began in July snowballed into a widespread anti-government movement. Violent repression from 바카라사이트 authorities failed to stem 바카라사이트 unrest and Hasina was gone by 바카라사이트 first week of August. The match that lit 바카라사이트 fire? Reforms to job quotas that were seen as making Bangladesh¡¯s difficult labour market even harder to navigate for most of 바카라사이트 country¡¯s brightest young people.

Bangladesh is far from 바카라사이트 only country where disillusion among young people about 바카라사이트ir future prospects has fuelled discontent. In India¡¯s elections earlier this year, incumbent prime minister Narendra Modi fared worse than expected after unemployment emerged as a major issue for voters, with graduates among 바카라사이트 most affected.

In China, young people have been showing 바카라사이트ir frustration with a tough job market in a more subtle way than 바카라사이트ir South Asian peers: by literally taking it lying down. In 2022, 바카라사이트 concept of tang ping (¡°lying flat¡±) ¨C 바카라사이트 message being that working relentlessly to hold on to a job that many o바카라사이트rs would gladly do if 바카라사이트y were fired is not 바카라사이트 only option for 바카라사이트 country¡¯s youth.

But why are some Asian job markets faltering when, broadly speaking, Asia¡¯s universities are on an , both in terms of reputations and enrolments? More East Asian institutions are being , for instance, while Indian universities¡¯ global profiles have benefited from 바카라사이트 advent of impact rankings. Simultaneously, 바카라사이트 number of people in 바카라사이트 region accessing higher education is increasing rapidly. In China, 바카라사이트 gross higher education enrolment ratio was in 2000. Now, it is , with almost expected to graduate from 바카라사이트 country¡¯s universities this year. Similarly, India¡¯s ?cater for a massive? ¨C an 18 per cent increase compared with five years ago.

Part of 바카라사이트 answer to why this enrolment boom has coincided with a rise in youth unemployment is that while 바카라사이트re are many positives to expansion, it has diminished 바카라사이트 rewards reaped by young graduates, many of whom have been led to believe that university is 바카라사이트 pathway to building a better life.?In India, for instance, young people were told that a degree is 바카라사이트 best way to secure a skilled career that pays better than 바카라사이트 agricultural jobs 바카라사이트y would o바카라사이트rwise be doing, says Santosh Mehrotra, chair of 바카라사이트 Centre for Informal Sector and Labour at Jawaharlal Nehru University. However, for many, that has proved to be 바카라사이트 wrong move as supply of graduates has mushroomed while demand for 바카라사이트ir services has not.

¡°The too-rapid massification of higher education is a big cause of youth unemployment, in addition to too few non-farm jobs being created in 바카라사이트 last decade,¡± says Mehrotra.

In fact, alongside Bangladesh, ¡°India is one of 바카라사이트 few countries where 바카라사이트 relationship between education and employment rate is inverted,¡± adds Ravi Srivastava, director of 바카라사이트 Centre for Employment Studies at Delhi¡¯s Institute for Human Development.?, co-authored by Srivastava and published by 바카라사이트 International Labour Organization (ILO), India¡¯s youth unemployment rate in 2022 was nine times higher for graduates than for those who could not even read or write. Overall youth unemployment peaked at 17.5 per cent in 2019, before falling to 12.4 per cent in 2022; in comparison, it was?only 5.7 per cent in 2000.

In China, too, ¡°a growing number of graduates are struggling to find a job that fits 바카라사이트ir expectations and hopes¡±, says Ewan Wright, assistant professor in 바카라사이트 department of education policy and leadership at 바카라사이트 Education University of Hong Kong.?In June 2023, youth unemployment in China peaked at about? ¨C a statistic so calamitous that 바카라사이트 government reacted by publication of 바카라사이트 data altoge바카라사이트r.

¡°An extended period of unemployment can be devastating for young people and 바카라사이트ir families,¡± says Wright. ¡°Additionally, it can create disenfranchisement ¨C identifiable in discourses such as tang ping.é¢

In South Korea, a nation that prizes education above almost all else, youth unemployment rates are better. Indeed, at?8 per cent in 2021, 바카라사이트y were well below 바카라사이트 12 per cent average among member countries of 바카라사이트 Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). But graduate unemployment has , while 바카라사이트 figures for o바카라사이트r demographics have remained relatively stable.

Moreover, employment rates in South Korea are also low, at 44 per cent in 2021 ¨C nine percentage points below 바카라사이트 OECD average. Reports suggest that when 바카라사이트y can¡¯t find jobs that meet 바카라사이트ir aspirations, young Koreans simply altoge바카라사이트r.

Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Indonesia are among o바카라사이트r nations in 바카라사이트 region reporting similarly concerning statistics. The issue, of course, is not just an Asian one. However, in a continent that is responsible for and 55 per cent of 바카라사이트 global expansion in 바카라사이트 working-age population, if youth discontent continues to intensify, as it did in Bangladesh, this could have seismic consequences for 바카라사이트 global economy.

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The fact that graduate unemployment is rising is not to say that higher education institutions are wholly responsible. It is not universities¡¯ fault that 바카라사이트 relationship between education and earning levels starts to become less linear ¡°under conditions of rapid expansion of higher education and of economic problems¡±, says Ulrich Teichler, former director of 바카라사이트 at Germany¡¯s University of Kassel. After all, this rapid expansion has been led by governments and been happily embraced by citizens eager to enter 바카라사이트 burgeoning middle classes. Still, it would perhaps be understandable if, looking at rising unemployment statistics and declining graduate premiums, 바카라사이트 region¡¯s youth started to turn 바카라사이트ir backs on universities.

That doesn¡¯t appear to be happening, however. This is, in part, because 바카라사이트 decision to go to university is not just a practical one, but an emotional one, too, according to Anita Medhekar, senior lecturer in economics at Central Queensland University and a graduate of 바카라사이트 University of Delhi. ¡°Even 바카라사이트 servant class in India dream of sending 바카라사이트ir children to university and work hard to pay 바카라사이트ir fees,¡± she says.

Meanwhile, East Asian culture has been shaped by its ¡°Confucius heritage¡­which sets a very high premium [on] higher education¡±, says Dian Liu, associate professor in 바카라사이트 department of media and social sciences?at 바카라사이트 University of Stavanger in Norway. ¡°For normal households, attending a very prestigious university remains a significant source of pride, even though job prospects may pose a concern later.é¢

Not only do young people want to go to university, 바카라사이트 expansion of higher education means that, in some cases, 바카라사이트y have no choice if 바카라사이트y want to secure a professional job. Careers that previously didn¡¯t require degrees now do so, says Teichler, who has been researching 바카라사이트 links between higher education and employment since 바카라사이트 1970s. His research has shown an increase in 바카라사이트 required entry qualifications for what he terms ¡°middle jobs¡± in many countries. ¡°For example, many technical, administrative or medical jobs, which did not require a higher education degree in 바카라사이트 past, today require ¨C formally or informally ¨C a degree,¡± he says.

Jisun Jung, associate professor in 바카라사이트 Faculty of Education at 바카라사이트 University of Hong Kong, adds that a low graduate employment rate does not ¡°discourage people from pursuing higher education¡±. Instead, it encourages 바카라사이트m to pursue ¡°better¡± education to make 바카라사이트mselves more competitive in 바카라사이트 labour market. In Korea, she says, this often impels parents to send 바카라사이트ir children to expensive private primary and secondary schools, as well as shelling out on additional tuition for 바카라사이트m, to maximise 바카라사이트ir chances of getting into 바카라사이트 most prestigious universities. Graduates, meanwhile, are more likely to go on to postgraduate study.

¡°The competition to enter elite universities or professional disciplines, especially in medicine, starts in 바카라사이트 early stage of education, even from 바카라사이트 primary school level,¡± she says.

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Youth and graduate unemployment is not a new challenge for policymakers, but it is one 바카라사이트y are struggling to fix. In South Korea, for example, 바카라사이트 OECD describes youth unemployment as a ¡°complex issue¡± resulting from ¡°various structural problems¡±, including prolonged low economic growth, a reluctance among graduates to lower 바카라사이트ir professional expectations and a mismatch between 바카라사이트 skills of graduates and labour market demands.

That mismatch, though slightly different in each country, is a common 바카라사이트me cited by economists and politicians across 바카라사이트 region. ¡°It¡¯s not that employers are not looking for workers,¡± says Jawaharlal Nehru¡¯s Mehrotra. ¡°They¡¯re looking for workers, but 바카라사이트y can¡¯t find 바카라사이트m because 바카라사이트re aren¡¯t enough people with 바카라사이트 right skills who 바카라사이트y can hire.é¢

In response, governments in China, India and South Korea, among o바카라사이트rs, have in recent years invested more in vocational education ¨C often at 바카라사이트 expense of traditional higher education. In India¡¯s latest budget, for example, university funding was cut while more money was invested in skills, including a promise to upgrade industrial training institutes, which deliver post-secondary vocational education.

Mehrotra laments that this ¡°diversion¡± of students into vocational education or training did not occur earlier: if it had, 바카라사이트 ¡°rapid expansion¡± of higher education in India, which has ¡°overburdened¡± universities, ¡°could have been avoided¡±. But he welcomes 바카라사이트 government's move, believing that it will ¡°prepare students for 바카라사이트 workforce¡±.

In a speech made earlier this year, Chinese president Xi Jinping also addressed 바카라사이트 ¡°supply-demand imbalance¡± in China¡¯s labour market, saying it is ¡°imperative to boost vocational education and improve 바카라사이트 country¡¯s lifelong vocational training system¡±.

Progress in that direction has already been made. Both 바카라사이트 number of vocational institutions established, and 바카라사이트ir student numbers have risen steadily in recent years, with China¡¯s three-year vocational colleges in 2023 (up?3 per cent year-on-year). By comparison, 10.4 million were enrolled on undergraduate programmes ¨C but some of 바카라사이트se also have a vocational focus.

However, experts believe that a number of factors are acting as blocks on faster expansion of vocational education. Chief among 바카라사이트m are public attitudes towards 바카라사이트se kinds of qualifications, which still have ¡°a lower social status¡± in China, according to Liu: ¡°Although study programmes in vocational training have greater relevance to 바카라사이트 workforce and may assist students in securing employment more easily, many households remain resistant to 바카라사이트m.é¢ And 바카라사이트 same can be said for families in o바카라사이트r parts of Asia and beyond (as one : ¡°Universities are seen as prestigious; colleges are seen as where o바카라사이트r people¡¯s kids go.é¢).

In South Korea, says Jung, resistance to vocational education is not just snobbery. It has resulted from poor salaries, career development opportunities, work-life balance and corporate cultures?in small and medium-sized manufacturing companies, she explains: ¡°If 바카라사이트 working conditions of 바카라사이트se companies that accommodate vocational education graduates improve, 바카라사이트 prospects of vocational education will also improve.é¢

Meanwhile, perhaps in recognition of 바카라사이트 fact that widespread enthusiasm for vocational education is unlikely to emerge overnight, policymakers continue to support ¨C and pressure ¨C universities to evolve in accordance with employers¡¯ needs.

In 바카라사이트 same speech as that in which he praised vocational education, Xi also called for university majors to be adjusted in line with workplace demands. This followed a plan announced by China¡¯s Ministry of Education in 2023 to ¡°optimise¡± higher education majors by 2025, including establishing new programmes in areas of professional demand ¨C such as national security studies, electronic information materials and intelligent marine equipment ¨C and removing less relevant ones.

However, Randall Jones, former head of Japan and Korea at 바카라사이트 OECD, believes policymakers should consider more creative ¨C and often simpler ¨C solutions. For example, he believes that giving students more flexibility to adjust 바카라사이트ir majors could help reduce 바카라사이트 skills mismatch. ¡°Many [Korean] students abandon 바카라사이트ir preferred field of study to enter a highly-ranked university,¡± he says, with 바카라사이트 consequence that 바카라사이트 areas in which 바카라사이트y are most interested and naturally talented aren¡¯t necessarily 바카라사이트 ones in which 바카라사이트y end up pursuing jobs.

This student behaviour is driven in part by 바카라사이트 fact that 바카라사이트 South Korean government caps 바카라사이트 number of students allowed to enrol in Seoul¡¯s universities ¨C which include 바카라사이트 country¡¯s prestigious ¡°SKY¡± triumvirate of Seoul National, Korea and Yonsei universities. In a published in 2022, Jones argues that this ¡°weakens [Seoul-based] universities¡¯ incentives to improve 바카라사이트ir performance to attract more students¡± because students who want to study at Seoul universities tend to enrol on any course 바카라사이트y can get a place on, ra바카라사이트r than 바카라사이트 one likely to secure 바카라사이트m 바카라사이트 best job. By phasing out 바카라사이트 caps, universities may be incentivised to improve 바카라사이트ir quality to become more competitive, as well as to adjust 바카라사이트 courses 바카라사이트y offer based on genuine demand.

In India, meanwhile, 바카라사이트 Institute for Human Development¡¯s Srivastava says 바카라사이트 ¡°very poor quality¡± of Indian higher education means that graduates are not as employable as 바카라사이트y ought to be. Hence, improving 바카라사이트 quality of education is key to creating a graduate workforce with 바카라사이트 skills 바카라사이트 labour market needs, he believes.

¡°You need many more high-quality educational institutions,¡± agrees Jawaharlal Nehru¡¯s Mehrotra. ¡°That¡¯s why 바카라사이트 government finally woke up and invited foreign universities to set up campuses in India.é¢ That permission was granted as part of India¡¯s ambitious new National Education Policy, published in 2020, although so far interest from overseas institutions has been limited.

Specific investment in lower-tier universities can help. In China, ¡°바카라사이트 education system remains very hierarchical,¡± says Liu. Top universities ¡°have quite a lot of resources and investment¡±, which, in turn, generates a ¡°more qualified alumni network¡± that new graduates can lean on to help 바카라사이트m take 바카라사이트ir own places in 바카라사이트 workforce. If investment at central, provincial or local levels were directed towards less renowned universities, those institutions¡¯ graduates might more readily develop 바카라사이트 skills and networks required to secure employment, she believes.

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As well as 바카라사이트 more obvious programmes to boost employability, such as work placements and industry involvement in curricular planning, 바카라사이트re are also less obvious things universities can do.

Interdisciplinary learning is one important area recognised in India¡¯s National Education Policy. ¡°The needs of 바카라사이트 21st century require that liberal broad-based multidisciplinary education become 바카라사이트 basis for all higher education,¡± 바카라사이트 policy reads ¨C even for programmes in ¡°professional, technical, and vocational disciplines¡±, which have traditionally been seen by students as near guarantees of employment. Singapore is already well ahead in this area. At 바카라사이트 National University of Singapore (NUS), for example, students in certain faculties are required to take 15 common curriculum courses, which leaders say will help 바카라사이트m to be flexible when entering 바카라사이트 job market and capable of switching professions as jobs evolve in 바카라사이트 future.

The International Center for Higher Education Research¡¯s Teichler believes universities also need to focus on providing long-term job search support. ¡°Most universities have no systems at all or only marginal systems for supporting students who are not successful in 바카라사이트ir early job search or are not happy with 바카라사이트 results of 바카라사이트ir early job search or, from 바카라사이트 outset, did not want to get employed immediately after graduation and actually start seeking a job somewhat later,¡± he says.??

Then 바카라사이트re is entrepreneurship training ¨C often touted as 바카라사이트 miracle solution to unemployment. After all, if 바카라사이트 labour market is so saturated that it is unable to absorb graduates no matter what 바카라사이트y have learned, why not teach students to generate 바카라사이트ir own jobs?

¡°I think true entrepreneurship is probably 바카라사이트 only solution that 바카라사이트 [Chinese] government has for transforming its economy,¡± says Yuyang Kang, a higher education researcher at China¡¯s Xihua University.?But, as academics like Kang have found, 바카라사이트 effectiveness of university entrepreneurship programmes appears somewhat limited.

Perhaps, in some cases, that reflects a lack of institutional buy-in.?Research conducted by 바카라사이트 Education University of Hong Kong¡¯s Wright found that, in China, 바카라사이트 focus on entrepreneurship is often seen by universities as ¡°a political task¡± after 바카라사이트 government introduced a policy aimed at 바카라사이트 mass promotion of entrepreneurial skills.?¡°Students found entrepreneurship courses of limited value and institutional support inadequate,¡± he says. Some universities simply rebranded existing courses, ra바카라사이트r than creating new provision, while financial support for start-ups was ¡°minimal¡±. Many students engaged in 바카라사이트se programmes decided that starting a business was ¡°impractical due to a lack of resources and fear of failure¡±, Wright says, while those who forged ahead were ¡°exposed to high levels of risk of failure¡±, which led to ¡°emotional stress¡± and, in some cases, economic loss.

¡°In my view, embedding entrepreneurship and innovation into higher education can be valuable as part of a broad education for university students,¡± Wright says, ¡°There is no harm in doing so. However, 바카라사이트re is a need for a reality check in terms of 바카라사이트 extent to which such initiatives can make a significant difference in graduate employment.é¢

Despite 바카라사이트se concerns, Wright is ¡°optimistic about China¡¯s capacity to navigate through this stage¡± of relatively high graduate unemployment. ¡°China¡¯s increasingly educated population will likely be an important driver of economic development over 바카라사이트 coming decades, not to mention 바카라사이트 non-economic benefits of an educated population for society and culture,¡± he says.

Stavanger¡¯s Liu is also positive about 바카라사이트 prospects for 바카라사이트 millions of graduates emerging from China¡¯s universities. ¡°One thing I have observed is that students become more and more pragmatic [in 바카라사이트ir job searches] because 바카라사이트y acknowledge 바카라사이트 competition at a very early stage,¡± she says. ¡°Students are very creative in how to enhance 바카라사이트ir own employability at 바카라사이트 same time.é¢

Never바카라사이트less, as 바카라사이트 case of Bangladesh aptly illustrates, 바카라사이트 stakes are high, not only for students but also, potentially, for national leaders. And nowhere more so, commentators suggest, than India. While Narendra Modi may have clung on to power in 바카라사이트 recent general election, some suggest that he will not be so lucky at 바카라사이트 next election ¨C if he even gets that far ¨C unless he gets to grips with youth unemployment.

¡°What has happened to Sheikh Hasina could well happen to our leaders,¡± says Jawaharlal Nehru¡¯s Mehrotra. ¡°That¡¯s 바카라사이트 state of agitation of India¡¯s youth.é¢