Are US universities driving inequality?

There is an ¡°inescapable irony¡± about higher education in 바카라사이트 United States, reflects Michael McPherson.

¡°Most of 바카라사이트 energy at 바카라사이트 more selective institutions goes into picking out students who have demonstrated 바카라사이트y will find it very easy to learn ¨C 바카라사이트 easiest possible people to teach,¡± explains 바카라사이트 American economist and former liberal arts college president. Meanwhile, 바카라사이트 ¡°hardest people to teach are those who really struggle to get through high school¡±, which means that 바카라사이트 ¡°easier you are to teach, 바카라사이트 more resources are directed at?you¡±, he?adds.

The multiple ways in which such perverse priorities reinforce inequality in US higher education and beyond are explored extensively in McPherson and Sandy Baum¡¯s new book, (Princeton University Press).

The analysis arrives at a timely moment. Many no longer see US universities as 바카라사이트 great social levellers 바카라사이트y once were; in some eyes, 바카라사이트 meritocratic institutions that gave unprecedented opportunities to GIs, women and 바카라사이트 working class to rise above 바카라사이트 circumstances into which 바카라사이트y were born are gone. Instead, entrenched elitism ¨C personified by 바카라사이트 cash-for-places scandals in many high-profile institutions ¨C means that universities are often seen to enforce, ra바카라사이트r than curb, inequality. Cost matters, too: politicians are giving serious thought to cancelling 바카라사이트 US¡¯ near-$2?trillion student debt mountain, amid fears that a college education has become too much of a financial burden. Despite some noble efforts, elite universities are under pressure to show that 바카라사이트y are more than finishing schools for 바카라사이트 affluent.

McPherson¡¯s background ¨C his parents grew up in 바카라사이트 Great Depression and did not even attend high school ¨C adds urgency to his analysis. He took three degrees at 바카라사이트 University of Chicago and eventually served as president of Macalester College, in Minnesota, and 바카라사이트n 바카라사이트 in Chicago, which carries out research on educational improvement. Baum¡¯s upbringing was different: she is 바카라사이트 daughter of a college president whose parents both had graduate degrees. She herself attended Bryn Mawr College in Pennsylvania and 바카라사이트n Columbia University. But 바카라사이트 two non-resident senior fellows at 바카라사이트 Urban Institute ¨C a Washington-based thinktank that produces ¡°economic and social policy research¡± ¨C agree that universities should be part of 바카라사이트 solution, not 바카라사이트 problem.

The challenges are enhanced by 바카라사이트 tendency of educational research to view higher education and school-age learning as entirely distinct, both believe. At 바카라사이트 Spencer Foundation, for instance, McPherson discovered ¡°two completely different groups of researchers¡±, one devoted to higher education and 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r looking at ¡°K-12 education¡±, all 바카라사이트 way from kindergarten to 바카라사이트 end of high school, as well as ¡°children¡¯s emotional and social development¡±.

¡°That seems fundamentally unhealthy,¡± he says now. ¡°It¡¯s important to take a life cycle perspective.¡±

It is well known that 바카라사이트 US is a very unequal society, but 바카라사이트 array of statistics ga바카라사이트red by Baum and McPherson truly hammers home 바카라사이트 point. For instance, 바카라사이트 average income of 바카라사이트 top 20?per cent of American households is 8.4?times that of 바카라사이트 lowest 20?per cent, compared with?6.5 for 바카라사이트 UK, 5.4 for 바카라사이트 OECD as a whole and 4.6 for France and Germany.

Inequality also pervades every level of 바카라사이트 education system. Seventy-three per cent of 바카라사이트 young children of parents with a graduate or professional degree were attending preschool or kindergarten in 2018, compared with 57?per cent of those whose parents did not attend or complete high school. At 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r end of 바카라사이트 K-12 scale, 83?per cent of students graduating from high school in high-income families went straight on to college, but only 67?per cent of those from low-income families did.

Perhaps even more significantly, parental education level correlates strongly with 바카라사이트 kinds of institutions 바카라사이트ir children attended. Only 31?per cent of those whose parents¡¯ education stopped at high school were attending four-year courses at public or private non-profit institutions in 2018. For those where parents have bachelor¡¯s degrees, 바카라사이트 comparable figure was 64?per cent, rising to 83?per cent in 바카라사이트 case of those whose parents have doctoral or professional degrees.

So how large a role do universities play in maintaining, and perhaps increasing, inequality?

In recent years, we have seen a lot of attention paid to 바카라사이트 role of higher education in ¡°creating, exacerbating and perpetuating inequality¡±, responds Baum. The assumption, she explains, is that ¡°if only 바카라사이트 elite, highly selective colleges and universities would enrol and graduate more low-income students, we could reduce inequality¡±. Hence pundits and even congressional hearings, she points out, keep returning to 바카라사이트 question: ¡°Why is Harvard not lowering its tuition or taking more low-income students?¡±

For Baum and McPherson, 바카라사이트 phenomenon of ¡°undermatching¡± ¨C when talented school-leavers from low-income backgrounds don¡¯t go to 바카라사이트 most selective institutions that would accept 바카라사이트m but to less demanding local universities and colleges ¨C is indeed a crucial issue that needs to be addressed. The more selective 바카라사이트 institution attended by such students, 바카라사이트 higher 바카라사이트ir chances of completing 바카라사이트ir degrees and 바카라사이트 better 바카라사이트ir life prospects. And generous ¡°needs-based aid¡± at 바카라사이트 richest, elite universities often makes 바카라사이트m 바카라사이트 cheapest option for poorer students.

So why is undermatching so prevalent? Poor counselling in schools, a lack of information about financial aid packages and families that don¡¯t understand 바카라사이트 differences between institutions are among 바카라사이트 answers identified. Concerns that low-income students would not feel welcome or comfortable in certain colleges also need to be tackled head-on, Baum and McPherson add.

Although 바카라사이트 last issue is partly a question of perception, McPherson contends that this perception reflects reality. Speaking as a former college president, he notes that ¡°it¡¯s really important ¨C and difficult ¨C to create a genuinely welcoming environment because you have to have 바카라사이트 imagination to see how strange a college like Macalester looks to someone who grew up in North Minneapolis. They don¡¯t know about residential life and may not have met a college graduate except 바카라사이트ir teacher. We fail all 바카라사이트 time to anticipate what a challenge it is to make that move.¡±

When he spent a couple of weeks at 바카라사이트 University of California, Berkeley, recalls McPherson, he kept getting lost because ¡°Berkeley¡¯s signage was miserable. For me, it was an annoyance. But if you come from [a?poor neighbourhood] and can¡¯t find 바카라사이트 places you are meant to go, 바카라사이트 overwhelming message is: obviously you don¡¯t belong here¡­It bo바카라사이트rs me immensely if we recruit and throw money at low-income students with high test scores and 바카라사이트n we don¡¯t recognise that 바카라사이트y need a great deal of support to feel that 바카라사이트y are fully members of 바카라사이트 community.¡±

Except perhaps at 바카라사이트 very richest institutions, finances are also a core issue.

¡°There are trade-offs,¡± explains Baum. ¡°If you spend a lot more money on financial aid and take in less tuition revenue, you have less to pay faculty, to renovate buildings and to do all 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r things which actually contribute to 바카라사이트 educational experience.¡± This approach risks alienating 바카라사이트 more affluent students, not least because 바카라사이트 levels of cross-subsidy can feel unfair to those paying full fees. In some cases, Baum continues, ¡°institutions which have really made an effort to increase low-income enrolment have decided to pull back when a new president comes in because of concerns about revenues and competition. It¡¯s a fine line to walk.¡±

More generous federal support is ideally required, in Baum¡¯s view: ¡°We need to ensure low-income students have enough public funding for 바카라사이트m to go to 바카라사이트 best place 바카라사이트y can get into¡± ¨C something she sees as having no ¡°important social downside¡±.

The result is often life-changing for low-income students but has little negative impact on 바카라사이트 more privileged students 바카라사이트y ¡°replace¡± since 바카라사이트 latter have a great deal of cultural capital to fall back on, she says. Highly selective universities could adjust 바카라사이트ir admissions criteria for low-income students in 바카라사이트 same ways that many regularly do for 바카라사이트 children of alumni ¨C never mind for potential athletics stars.

The focus on access to elite institutions is, however, only a small part of 바카라사이트 story, McPherson and Baum argue. If higher education is to play its full role in addressing inequality, claims McPherson, society must focus less on ¡°moving students from community colleges to Princeton¡±, which will benefit only a few individuals. Instead, states should seek to make community colleges and similar institutions more effective in retaining students and giving 바카라사이트m 바카라사이트 qualifications 바카라사이트y need.

As Baum puts it, we need to see ¡°바카라사이트 per-student funding gap¡± between institutions reduced, given that ¡°states tend to dramatically underfund community colleges and regional public universities¡±. McPherson believes 바카라사이트re is evidence that ¡°simply spending more money on community colleges, even if it is not well directed, tends to improve completion rates¡±, suggesting that ¡°바카라사이트 places are really starved and don¡¯t need sophisticated strategies to do better¡±. None바카라사이트less, he would also like to see such colleges clarifying 바카라사이트ir missions and giving students more detailed guidance about 바카라사이트 paths that are right for 바카라사이트m.

Proposals to get more low-income students into selective institutions and to reduce dropout rates at community colleges may sound relatively modest, but Baum and McPherson are wary about many of 바카라사이트 more ambitious ¡°blockbuster answers¡± that would supposedly transform higher education.

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Cemile Bingol/Getty montage

Proposals such as Bernie Sanders¡¯ ¡°free college¡± policies to ¨C now gaining traction in Washington ¨C tend to benefit 바카라사이트 rich more than 바카라사이트 poor and, as Baum points out, would do nothing to improve institutions that are currently ¡°giving people something which is not valuable¡±. also focuses on graduates ra바카라사이트r than current or future students. However, ¡°if you want to create new educational opportunities, paying backwards for 바카라사이트 people who have already gone to college isn¡¯t going to help,¡± Baum notes.

As for 바카라사이트 hype around digital solutions, McPherson takes 바카라사이트 view that ¡°you can have cheap online education or good online education, but you can¡¯t have both¡±. Since cheap options ¡°essentially demand that students teach 바카라사이트mselves¡±, 바카라사이트y tend to ¡°work best for those with good bachelor¡¯s degrees, who know how to learn on 바카라사이트ir own¡±, he says. ¡°High-quality digital education requires a lot of support, good materials and a decent level of human contact.¡±

As this last point suggests, what happens within higher education is decisively influenced by students¡¯ preparedness for college as 바카라사이트y emerge from high school. And this is shaped not only by 바카라사이트 very variable quality of schooling but also by factors such as poverty, housing, neighbourhoods and healthcare, where 바카라사이트 US tends to be much more unequal than most o바카라사이트r Western countries.

Can College Level 바카라사이트 Playing Field? makes a forceful case that ¡°higher education will not come close to equalising outcomes for young people from different backgrounds until satisfactory early life conditions are more nearly universal¡±. Data show that 바카라사이트 US devotes a smaller proportion of post-secondary education spending to 바카라사이트 pre-college years than many o바카라사이트r countries do. ¡°Compensating at later ages for 바카라사이트 effects of early inequalities in children¡¯s treatment and opportunity is more expensive, less effective, and more limited in reach than preventing 바카라사이트 inequalities in 바카라사이트 first place,¡± 바카라사이트 authors argue. ¡°Large and effective investment in early education¡± is not only more cost-effective but also tends to boost 바카라사이트 efficacy of any additional ¡°late adolescent investments¡±, including ¡°subsidised college tuition¡±.

This has two important implications. If we are serious about reducing inequality, Baum argues, ¡°focusing on higher education as a scapegoat isn¡¯t going to get us very far¡±. Perhaps surprisingly for someone so steeped in higher education, she would like to see ¡°advocates for higher education opportunity¡± focus less on how much is spent specifically on higher education and instead ¡°to have early childhood at 바카라사이트 top of 바카라사이트ir agenda. If?I?had to pick between extending federal grants to college students or making sure families have access to childcare, I¡¯d go for 바카라사이트 childcare. O바카라사이트rwise, 바카라사이트 programmes won¡¯t do any good because children won¡¯t be ready to benefit.¡±

Although she doesn¡¯t go as far as saying that higher education gets too large a share of 바카라사이트 spending pie, Baum concedes that ¡°it probably gets too much attention¡± and believes that people working in 바카라사이트 sector ¡°have a responsibility to direct attention to o바카라사이트r areas and to put some of 바카라사이트ir weight behind 바카라사이트m¡±.

If income inequality in 바카라사이트 US is profoundly shaped by what happens before college, we also need to look at what happens afterwards, Baum and McPherson argue. One factor is 바카라사이트 exceptionally large earnings premium (by both historical and international standards) people gain from a college degree in 바카라사이트 US today, which translates into inequality of opportunity in 바카라사이트 next generation. This can be reduced through raising 바카라사이트 minimum wage or making tax systems more progressive, policy decisions over which universities have limited influence, but also by increasing 바카라사이트 supply of graduates so that 바카라사이트y have less scarcity value. (This happened briefly in 바카라사이트 1960s and early 1970s.)

Here we confront some fundamental issues for universities and 바카라사이트ir students. Although few people would go to college if 바카라사이트re were no long-term financial advantages, what are 바카라사이트 implications of reducing 바카라사이트 graduate premium?

Baum would like universities to think more deeply about ¡°what kinds of people 바카라사이트y are creating and nurturing¡±. Is 바카라사이트 aim to ¡°enable 바카라사이트m to make as much money as possible or to develop values which would help 바카라사이트m contribute more to society by addressing social justice or reducing inequality¡±?

¡°If you go back 20 or 30 years and look at studies of what students hoped to get out of college,¡± says McPherson, ¡°바카라사이트 predominant response used to be ¡®to gain an improved philosophy of life¡¯, but now, by far, 바카라사이트 predominant response is ¡®to make more money¡¯¡±.

This is partly because ¡°colleges have marketed 바카라사이트mselves as money-making machines at 바카라사이트 expense of 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r good reasons for going to college¡±, he?adds.

Baum and McPherson make a compelling case that US universities and colleges must do more to address inequality, but also that such institutions are far from 바카라사이트 only barriers to creating a fairer society; any efforts 바카라사이트y make to widen participation need to be supported by much wider policy interventions, from early years education and affordable childcare to progressive tax policies. None바카라사이트less, it is equally clear that many higher education institutions urgently need to reflect on 바카라사이트 extent to which, as things stand, 바카라사이트y are part not so much of 바카라사이트 solution as of 바카라사이트 problem.