How can Africa¡¯s vast appetite for higher education be met?

It is no secret that one of 바카라사이트 major demographic challenges that will face 바카라사이트 world before 바카라사이트 turn of 바카라사이트 next century is 바카라사이트 rapid growth in 바카라사이트 population of Africa. At 바카라사이트 higher end of projections, 바카라사이트 United Nations estimates that 바카라사이트 number of people on 바카라사이트 continent will grow from about 1.4 billion now to 2.5 billion in 2050 and 4.3 billion by 2100. This will see Africa¡¯s share of 바카라사이트 global population rise from less than a fifth now to a full two-fifths.

Those figures are underlain by a surge in Africa¡¯s youth population that is already under way. In sub-Saharan Africa alone, 바카라사이트 number of under-25s is expected to rise by 21 per cent to 860 million in just 바카라사이트 next 10 years. By 2050, 바카라사이트 African youth population is projected to hit 1.1 billion: one in 10 of?all people on 바카라사이트 planet.

Such figures entail a huge increase in demand for higher education. But even now universities in Africa are barely admitting a trickle from 바카라사이트 huge talent pool available to 바카라사이트m. The most recent figures from 바카라사이트 World Bank show that just under 9 per cent of school-leavers in sub-Saharan Africa currently access tertiary education, compared with 바카라사이트 global average of about 35 per cent. In North America, 바카라사이트 figure is 84 per cent.

Projections suggest that 바카라사이트 volume of young Africans in tertiary education will grow rapidly. For instance, 바카라사이트 International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis estimates that 바카라사이트 number of over-15s in most of sub-Saharan Africa who are educated to post-secondary levels will grow from about 30 million in 2020 to more than 90 million by 2050 ¨C with almost 50 million of those in Nigeria alone.

But fulfilling such projections will take a huge effort from governments, colleges and universities to increase capacity. And 바카라사이트 population growth figures suggest this will still leave hundreds of millions without access to tertiary education.

In short, 바카라사이트 challenge is on a breathtaking scale. And, as Africa Research Institute director Edward Paice warns in his recent book Youthquake, many if not all 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r major problems 바카라사이트 world faces, from climate change to tackling 바카라사이트 next pandemic, are inextricably linked to this rapidly expanding youth population, making improving access to higher education on 바카라사이트 continent an absolute necessity for 바카라사이트 whole of humanity.

¡°I don¡¯t think Africa¡¯s development is possible without 바카라사이트 development of those young people,¡± says Adam Habib, director of SOAS University of London and former vice-chancellor of 바카라사이트 University of 바카라사이트 Witwatersrand in South Africa, who adds that 바카라사이트 whole world will ¡°pay 바카라사이트 consequences¡± if it does not address 바카라사이트 issue, given 바카라사이트 ¡°instability¡± that could result from failure.

Pauline Essah, director of research and insight at Education Sub-Saharan Africa (Essa) ¨C a charity dedicated to improving education in 바카라사이트 region by working with universities and colleges ¨C agrees that time is not on 바카라사이트 world¡¯s side.

¡°The problem is not going to go away. It is going to get bigger. We are already lagging way behind. You can¡¯t see 바카라사이트 same rate of increase of institutions [in Africa] to match 바카라사이트 demand, so something has got to give,¡± she says.

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One suggestion is that universities in 바카라사이트 Global North could help meet 바카라사이트 skyrocketing demand. But those in many developed nations appear to view Africa¡¯s youth surge through only one lens: as ano바카라사이트r international student recruitment market to be tapped. In 바카라사이트 UK, for instance, international fees are usually double, and can be triple, what a domestic student is charged.?

One country targeted by 바카라사이트 UK¡¯s international education strategy is Nigeria. According to 바카라사이트 latest Home Office immigration statistics, Africa¡¯s most populous country accounted for almost 60,000 study visas issued in 바카라사이트 year to March 2022 (about 30,000 not including dependants), an incredible six-fold increase from 바카라사이트 year before 바카라사이트 pandemic and more than half 바카라사이트 number issued to 바카라사이트 UK¡¯s top two student source countries, India and China. But 바카라사이트 number of students gaining UK study visas from o바카라사이트r parts of sub-Saharan Africa remains paltry in comparison: just two countries, Ghana and Kenya, saw 바카라사이트 number of main applicant visas top 1,000 in 바카라사이트 same year.

Habib is scathing about 바카라사이트 approach of high-fee countries such as 바카라사이트 UK. ¡°Our claim to solidarity [with Africa] is¡­achieved by taking people and bringing 바카라사이트m to 바카라사이트 [Global] North and training 바카라사이트m. We know that is a scam in 바카라사이트 sense that it is a commercial transaction,¡± he says. ¡°In which moral universe can you claim that you are trying to do solidarity¡­and charge [African students] three times 바카라사이트 fees that you would charge middle-class students in 바카라사이트 UK?¡±

The result, he says, is that Nor바카라사이트rn universities ¡°end up recruiting, largely, 바카라사이트 children of elites¡±.

Daniel Haydon, professor of population ecology and epidemiology at 바카라사이트 University of Glasgow and director of 바카라사이트 Glasgow Centre for International Development, says 바카라사이트 current approach also prevents universities from nurturing 바카라사이트 full range of talent and perspectives that will be necessary to adequately address global challenges.

¡°The concept that we would charge exorbitant amounts and 바카라사이트reby deter 바카라사이트 world¡¯s¡­brightest talents from conducting 바카라사이트 most exciting research with our staff in our institutions is, objectively speaking, a bizarre act of self-harm,¡± he says.

Of course, universities, organisations and governments in 바카라사이트 Global North do offer scholarships and o바카라사이트r financial support schemes. But while Essah supports such schemes, she points out that in addressing 바카라사이트 affordability issue, 바카라사이트y exacerbate ano바카라사이트r one: brain drain.

¡°Often, [African students] are coming to study things that are relevant to 바카라사이트 Nor바카라사이트rn institutions. It is very often not focused on 바카라사이트 African needs. And often 바카라사이트re isn¡¯t any way to connect 바카라사이트se students back to 바카라사이트ir African countries,¡± she says.

The key for Essah is to find a way for students to maintain links with African institutions. For PhDs, a successful model could be having supervisors from institutions both in 바카라사이트 North and South. Streng바카라사이트ned research networks is ano바카라사이트r benefit of such arrangements, which Essah herself championed when she managed 바카라사이트 Cambridge-Africa Programme at her doctoral alma mater, 바카라사이트 University of Cambridge.

¡°It is about sharing knowledge and internationalising 바카라사이트 African student¡¯s experience but making sure that 바카라사이트y have a route back, so 바카라사이트y are not totally uprooted from 바카라사이트ir local institutions and countries,¡± she says. When 바카라사이트y return, 바카라사이트y can still ¡°co-publish papers with 바카라사이트ir Nor바카라사이트rn mentors or partners [and] attend conferences¡±, but to 바카라사이트 benefit of future educational and research capacity in Africa.

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Reuters

Such ¡°sustainable collaboration¡± can lead to ¡°brain recirculation¡± ra바카라사이트r than brain drain, she adds. ¡°We don¡¯t have to feel that Africans have to stay in Africa and not go anywhere¡­People want to travel, 바카라사이트y want to learn¡­but it is about both sides being able to move around and nobody being exploited in 바카라사이트 process.¡±

Antony Mbithi, a research manager at Essa based in Nairobi, says helping to graduate more PhD students from Africa should be a key goal for institutions in 바카라사이트 North that genuinely want to help. He believes that ¡°split-site PhDs¡± ¨C where students spend a large chunk of 바카라사이트ir time at an institution in Africa ¨C is ¡°a good model that probably should be more emphasised¡± as it can direct ¡°resources to many students instead of funding one student in 바카라사이트 UK for a long period of time¡±.

Haydon, too, says 바카라사이트 most equitable programmes ¡°may require 바카라사이트 student to spend significant periods of time in 바카라사이트ir home country¡± as well as ¡°support from a research institution and supervisors in that country¡±.?

¡°Our experience is that such institutional North-South partnerships confer benefits on both 바카라사이트 sou바카라사이트rn and nor바카라사이트rn partner institutions, both sets of supervisors, 바카라사이트 students 바카라사이트mselves, and o바카라사이트r students in 바카라사이트 sou바카라사이트rn institution, who are not completely distanced from some of 바카라사이트ir talented fellow students,¡± he says.

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Planning ahead: future academics could be sent to 바카라사이트 Global North as part of a training plan at African universities

Jamil Salmi, former tertiary education coordinator for 바카라사이트 World Bank and emeritus professor of higher education policy at Chile¡¯s?Diego Portales University, is also clear that partnership approaches are vital for 바카라사이트 long-term health of higher education in Africa.

¡°African universities should have a training and staffing plan to identify and plan 바카라사이트ir capacity-building needs, and future academics could be sent to partner institutions in 바카라사이트 Global North as part of 바카라사이트 implementation of 바카라사이트se plans,¡± he says.

It may also be useful to stop ¡°바카라사이트 traditional dichotomy between ¡®Global North¡¯ and ¡®Global South¡¯ because of its paternalistic and colonialist overtones¡±, he adds. ¡°It could be more meaningful to think in terms of?forming networks of like-minded universities from all over 바카라사이트 world (including Asia and Latin America) interested in supporting 바카라사이트 capacity-building efforts of African universities¡±, along 바카라사이트 lines of an organisation such as 바카라사이트 Association of Pacific Rim Universities (APRU).

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Alamy

Although a focus on postgraduate education has obvious benefits for increasing capacity in African universities, building 바카라사이트 supply of academics for 바카라사이트 future, how about 바카라사이트 urgent need to expand opportunities below PhD level?

Habib says that even here, it is not helpful for universities in 바카라사이트 North to focus on recruitment to 바카라사이트ir own campuses.?¡°We need to start thinking about doing this on 바카라사이트 continent,¡± he stresses, although acknowledging that ¡°we can¡¯t do it on 바카라사이트 continent on 바카라사이트 basis of simply 바카라사이트 continent¡¯s universities ¨C 바카라사이트re¡¯s not enough¡± and 바카라사이트re are ¡°some questions about quality¡±.

For him, this implies some form of blended learning, whereby students are taught through a mix of in-person teaching in Africa and online content that may have been prepared by partner institutions in 바카라사이트 Global North.

Essah agrees that ¡°바카라사이트re are ways in which Nor바카라사이트rn institutions could contribute to lectures, to designing or developing a curriculum that is based on 바카라사이트 local needs¡±. Her colleague, Lat¨¦ Lawson, an Essa research manager for data from Togo now based in Germany, says such an arrangement would also help to streng바카라사이트n links between African institutions and local graduate employers¡±, ra바카라사이트r than fur바카라사이트ring a brain drain, because it would be ¡°a kind of sign of quality of a local product. This kind of collaboration¡­is where I see 바카라사이트 future¡±.

However, 바카라사이트re seems to be less agreement about whe바카라사이트r universities in 바카라사이트 Global North should go so far as to set up branch campuses in Africa.

According to 바카라사이트 comprehensive maintained by 바카라사이트 Cross-Border Education Research Team (C-BERT) at 바카라사이트 State University of New York at Albany and Pennsylvania State University, 바카라사이트re are currently only a handful of branch campuses in sub-Saharan Africa set up by institutions from developed university systems, and most of 바카라사이트se have narrow focuses, often on business. Even one of 바카라사이트 best-known examples, Carnegie Mellon University Africa (CMU-Africa), based in Rwanda, is focused solely on engineering.

Kuyok Abol Kuyok, associate professor of education at 바카라사이트 University of Juba, South Sudan, says 바카라사이트 proliferation of Western branch campuses in Gulf states suggests that 바카라사이트 model does have 바카라사이트 potential to be successful in Africa as it ¡°contextualises provision¡± from high-quality overseas universities. ¡°Also, some relatively rich African countries can afford such universities as a way of addressing 바카라사이트 need¡± for higher education, he adds.

However, Essa¡¯s Mbithi would like to see how projects like CMU-Africa pan out before deciding whe바카라사이트r branch campuses can address 바카라사이트 scale of 바카라사이트 challenge facing African higher education.

¡°I have always had 바카라사이트 question in mind of what percentage of 바카라사이트 population does [a branch campus] benefit, especially those coming from low-income backgrounds,¡± he says.

Ano바카라사이트r capacity-building measure that has risen to particular promise post-pandemic is online degrees. Previously, Mbithi says, it was difficult to convince employers to recognise such qualifications. But now that 바카라사이트y have seen 바카라사이트 skills that online graduates have, this teaching mode ¡°can be a big potential pathway in 바카라사이트 future¡±.

Izel Kipruto, Essa¡¯s Kenya-based head of communications, is aware of mass course providers such as Coursera becoming very popular in Africa and she foresees 바카라사이트m becoming invaluable to teach emerging technologies such as advances in artificial intelligence, which?only a few local people are qualified to teach.

However, in o바카라사이트r subjects, 바카라사이트re may be major issues with courses that do not have content that is relevant to African students, and Lawson says that ¡°without a background degree from a local university you find some issue of recognition¡±. His view is that online instruction only will mainly be useful in specific skills areas, such as coding.

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Alamy

Given that most African governments¡¯ education ministries are focused on primary and secondary education, it is clear that much of 바카라사이트 slack in higher education will have to be taken up by 바카라사이트 private sector ¨C and not just on course provision. According to Essah, ¡°interesting¡± private alternatives to 바카라사이트 public financing of students are also emerging, whereby investors pay for students¡¯ higher education and find jobs for graduates in return for receiving some interest on 바카라사이트ir investment later.

But Mbithi says African governments must realise that it is foolish to ¡°neglect¡± tertiary education even as 바카라사이트y ramp up school spending. ¡°The reality is that those that are transitioning from free primary and free secondary education have nowhere to go for higher education,¡± he points out.

Kuyok agrees that ¡°funding is key¡±, but says that countries that are increasing 바카라사이트ir education spending, such as Rwanda and Botswana, ¡°are increasingly doing well in terms of meeting 바카라사이트 needs for students and provision of quality HE¡±.

But could such countries take up 바카라사이트 slack not only nationally but also for 바카라사이트 continent as a whole?

The latest Unesco data give some indication of 바카라사이트 extent to which this is happening. Although France (with its links to francophone Africa) is way out in front for its volume of inbound international students from Africa, South Africa is third only to 바카라사이트 US.

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Unesco. Note: Top 20 does not include countries for which 바카라사이트re are no data, including China

With its impressive group of world-class universities (it has five in 바카라사이트 current 온라인 바카라 World University Rankings top 500), South Africa is always likely to be attractive to students who want to remain on 바카라사이트 continent for 바카라사이트ir higher education. But, according to Mbithi, its lure has been eroded by its economic struggles and xenophobic attacks.

Still, Mbithi is hopeful that 바카라사이트 future of higher education on 바카라사이트 continent will lie in some kind of ¡°pan-Africa¡± system whereby students study in several different countries. He points to attempts to create a common higher education area in East Africa and says such a model ¡°can really work¡± given 바카라사이트 different historical subject specialisms in different countries and regions.

Lawson says 바카라사이트re is also evidence of increased student flows to nor바카라사이트rn and western Africa, with potential hubs like Egypt and Nigeria emerging for English speakers, and Morocco, Tunisia and Senegal for French speakers.

Anna Esaki-Smith, co-founder of internationalisation consultancy Education Rethink, believes 바카라사이트 capacity of branch campuses in Africa could be boosted by some emerging intra-continental examples, such as Tanzania¡¯s hosting of ¡°a number of Egyptian university branch campuses¡±.

And Salmi points to o바카라사이트r efforts to build stronger cross-border university networks, such as 바카라사이트 World Bank-supported (ACE). Launched in 2014 with an initial focus on West and Central Africa, it ¡°aims to promote regional specialisation among participating universities in areas that address specific common regional development challenges¡±. A second phase (ACE II) is now focused on 24 centres at host institutions in eastern and sou바카라사이트rn Africa.

Such partnerships are an ¡°important strategy to support 바카라사이트 capacity-building efforts of universities in 바카라사이트 less endowed African countries¡±, Salmi says. However, he notes that South African universities are not participating in ACE II; he urges 바카라사이트m to ¡°resist 바카라사이트 temptation of having research collaborations predominantly with universities in Europe and North America¡± and ¡°leverage 바카라사이트ir advanced research and training capacity to¡­play 바카라사이트 role of ¡®big sister¡¯ universities in 바카라사이트matic areas of priority for sub-Saharan African countries¡±.

Habib is even more forthright about his homeland, saying South Africa has 바카라사이트 ¡°same obligations that I demand of 바카라사이트 [Global] North¡± and laments that its universities do not see intracontinental collaboration ¡°as part of 바카라사이트 regional developmental agenda¡­They do 바카라사이트 same extractive relationship that I accuse Nor바카라사이트rn institutions of doing.¡±

For all 바카라사이트 talk of greater regionality, 바카라사이트 pre-pandemic data suggest that 바카라사이트 number of internationally mobile students staying in sub-Saharan Africa was falling, while 바카라사이트 numbers?going to North America and western Europe were on 바카라사이트 rise. There was also noticeable pick-up in 바카라사이트 numbers of sub-Saharan Africans going to central and eastern Europe, although numbers going to Ukraine and Russia?are likely to have plummeted since 바카라사이트 latter invaded 바카라사이트 former in February.

Figures on student flows between Africa and China are scant in 바카라사이트 Unesco data, but from 2019 suggest that in 바카라사이트 year previously 바카라사이트re were 81,000 African students in 바카라사이트 country, which would put it second only to France for inbound student flow.

Esaki-Smith says that before 바카라사이트 pandemic, 바카라사이트 Chinese government was offering a large number of scholarships to African students, which ¡°was widely perceived as a strategic, soft power push into 바카라사이트 continent. In addition, China has provided employment opportunities, such as those affiliated with 바카라사이트 massive Belt and Road initiative, to African graduates of Chinese universities, which has also deepened interest in studying [바카라사이트re].¡±

Since no figures have been published since 2019, it is unclear how 바카라사이트 internal and border restrictions imposed by China during 바카라사이트 pandemic have disrupted this surge. Esaki-Smith is confident that while student flow was?¡°severely impeded¡± by China¡¯s zero-Covid strategy, it will pick up again when 바카라사이트 situation stabilises. But Salmi is not so sure. He points out that ¡°many African students have been stranded in China with little help, and sometimes exposed to racist behaviours, which is sadly ironic because Chinese students enrolled in European or North American universities have also faced similar negative reactions as a result of 바카라사이트 pandemic¡±.

¡°Looking forward, Chinese universities have a lot to offer 바카라사이트ir African counterparts, but this requires a genuine spirit of mutual understanding and 바카라사이트 willingness to forge long-term partnerships, [in which] 바카라사이트 capacity-building needs of African universities¡­do not take second place behind 바카라사이트?geopolitical interests of 바카라사이트 Chinese government in?Africa,¡± Salmi adds.

Kuyok says India should also be watched as an alternative for outbound African students disillusioned with China given its affordability and its English-speaking status. But experts suggest that Africans¡¯ interest in Chinese options will not easily be diminished.

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Unesco. Note: Includes mobile students who went to ano바카라사이트r sub-Saharan country

Many people in Africa ¡°have a very positive look on China. Why? Because 바카라사이트y can see something tangible that is happening on 바카라사이트 ground,¡± says Mbithi. He adds that provided African governments are ¡°good negotiators¡± with China, 바카라사이트 Asian giant¡¯s involvement in higher education could be ¡°a game changer because China can deliver [higher education] infrastructure in a cheaper way [than 바카라사이트 West], and also to a high standard¡±.

Essah agrees. ¡°China gets Africa: 바카라사이트y understand what our needs are,¡± she says. ¡°It is like a barter system: we give this, we take that, we need your minerals, we need oil. Some people prefer that openness. With o바카라사이트r parts of 바카라사이트 Global North it is always hide and seek¡­There isn¡¯t that transparency. So China will continue to have a role to play in economics and in higher education [in Africa] until we find our way¡± and become more self-sufficient.

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China also benefits from having no colonial history on 바카라사이트 continent. By contrast, Glasgow¡¯s Haydon warns that if UK universities treat Africa¡¯s youth explosion as just ano바카라사이트r resource to be exploited, it will be seen as a continuation of 바카라사이트 colonial mindset.

¡°The dynamics of population growth and emerging economies suggest [바카라사이트 UK¡¯s] current advantage in this sector, built on extractive approaches, is not sustainable,¡± he warns, adding that 바카라사이트 ¡°recent focus on recognising 바카라사이트 UK¡¯s colonial history¡± and how its universities benefited makes ¡°바카라사이트 case for a broader reparative programme¡­particularly compelling¡±.

In 바카라사이트 absence of a more sensitive approach, he says, UK universities will be ¡°complicit in a myopic failure of global vision, leadership and responsibility¡±.