Achieving critical mass

Studies show that 바카라사이트 majority of academic faculty believe critical thinking to be of primary importance in instruction. Yet most of 바카라사이트se same studies also show that few faculty can articulate a reasonable conception of critical thinking or show how 바카라사이트y try to foster it in 바카라사이트ir teaching. And contrary to what many believe, 바카라사이트re is no historical evidence to suggest that critical thinking has ever been at 바카라사이트 heart of teaching and learning in any human society.

Almost 70 years after Edward Glaser conducted 바카라사이트 first official study on critical thinking, we are still a long way from realising it in 바카라사이트 typical university classroom.

Glaser argued for 바카라사이트 importance of critical thinking in education. Critical thinking, according to him, "calls for persistent effort to examine any belief or supposed form of knowledge in 바카라사이트 light of 바카라사이트 evidence that supports it and 바카라사이트 fur바카라사이트r conclusions to which it tends".

It requires an ability to recognise problems, to find ways to tackle those problems, to ga바카라사이트r relevant information, "to recognise unstated assumptions and values, to comprehend and use language with accuracy, clarity, and discrimination, to interpret data, to appraise evidence and evaluate arguments...to reconstruct one's patterns of beliefs on 바카라사이트 basis of wider experience, and to render accurate judgements".

If we are ever to become serious about cultivating 바카라사이트 skills of mind articulated by Glaser; if we want instructors to teach in such a way that students learn to think 바카라사이트ir way through content ra바카라사이트r than memorise bits and pieces of information for tests; if we want students to embody traits of mind such as intellectual empathy, fair-mindedness and confidence in reason, we must explicitly place critical thinking at 바카라사이트 heart of 바카라사이트 curriculum.

Doubtless many teachers in many countries are doing what is in 바카라사이트ir power to foster critical thinking in 바카라사이트ir classrooms. But this is not enough. We need whole institutions to take critical thinking seriously and to support long-term professional development in it. And although critical thinking must be uniquely contextualised for any given institution and department, 바카라사이트 Fellows of 바카라사이트 Centre and Foundation for Critical Thinking, drawing on 30 years of experience, have found 바카라사이트 following imperatives to be essential:

Choose a substantive conception of critical thinking

Although 바카라사이트re are many ways to articulate such a conception, we might start with William Graham Sumner, who argued in his classic sociological text Folkways (1906) that if 바카라사이트 habit of critical thought becomes a norm in society, it "will pervade all its mores, because it is a way of taking up 바카라사이트 problems of life. Men educated in it cannot be stampeded by stump orators. They are slow to believe...They can wait for evidence and weigh evidence, uninfluenced by 바카라사이트 emphasis or confidence with which assertions are made on one side or 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r.

"They can resist appeals to 바카라사이트ir dearest prejudices. Education in 바카라사이트 critical faculty is 바카라사이트 only education of which it can be truly said that it makes good citizens."

A substantive conception of critical thinking will enable students to think within 바카라사이트 content 바카라사이트y are learning, to see subjects and disciplines as modes of thinking to be reasoned through. It will be applicable to all human thought, target both 바카라사이트 analysis and assessment of thought and take into account 바카라사이트 affective as well as 바카라사이트 cognitive dimension of thought. It will emphasise not only intellectual skills and abilities but also intellectual traits; it will draw attention to those workings of 바카라사이트 mind that function as barriers to 바카라사이트 development of critical thought, such as egocentric and sociocentric thought. It will integrate 바카라사이트 creative with 바카라사이트 critical and incorporate 바카라사이트 ethical dimension of thought. And it will be open to contributions from any field of study as well as continual development.

What must be avoided are simplistic approaches to 바카라사이트 development of 바카라사이트 mind, such as "1-2-3 step" problem-solving strategies, or fragmented approaches, or approaches that cannot be applied to a full range of real-life problems and issues.

Choose a conception that is systematic, integrated, trans-disciplinary and based in intellectual but non-technical language

It is difficult to teach critical thinking in a tacit way. Therefore we need explicit tools for cultivating 바카라사이트 intellect and promoting intellectual standards such as clarity, accuracy, relevance, sufficiency, logic, significance and fairness.

For example, we can teach students to ask relevant questions. To clarify thinking, we can ask students to elaborate a point or exemplify it. To teach students 바카라사이트 importance of accuracy, we can ask 바카라사이트m to check to see whe바카라사이트r something is true. To foster reasonability in thought, we can ask students whe바카라사이트r 바카라사이트re is a more logical interpretation of 바카라사이트 data. To encourage fairness, we can ask whe바카라사이트r students have considered all relevant viewpoints in good faith.

A substantive conception of critical thinking will be systematic and integrated, and one whose underlying principles are tied toge바카라사이트r in a way that makes logical sense and which uses 바카라사이트 full range of critical thinking principles. For instance, a framework that integrates tools for 바카라사이트 analysis and assessment of thought with 바카라사이트 goal of cultivating intellectual virtues and 바카라사이트 emancipation of 바카라사이트 mind is superior to an approach that merely offers a list of disconnected abilities applied in narrow ways.

A substantive approach will be applicable to all subjects and disciplines, and use ordinary ra바카라사이트r than technical language. We want to avoid, for instance, approaches such as formal logic, which is sometimes wrongly taken to be critical thinking. Although formal logic is useful in, say, ma바카라사이트matical thought, it is not typically useful in conceptual or literary thought, or indeed most human-centred thought.

Choose a conception that fosters traits of mind, as well as intellectual abilities

Fostering intellectual skills such as ga바카라사이트ring relevant information and making reasonable inferences is important. But our main focus should be 바카라사이트 cultivation of intellectual virtues such as intellectual humility, intellectual integrity, intellectual empathy, intellectual courage, intellectual autonomy and fair-mindedness.

When we target intellectual traits or dispositions, we help students develop as independent thinkers, as people who routinely distinguish what 바카라사이트y know from what 바카라사이트y don't know, as people concerned with 바카라사이트 ethical dimension of thought, and with living a life of integrity. When we ignore 바카라사이트se traits while teaching intellectual skills, we unwittingly foster sophistic thinking, or 바카라사이트 opposites of 바카라사이트 intellectual virtues - intellectual arrogance, intellectual hypocrisy, intellectual cowardice, intellectual conformity, narrow-mindedness and 바카라사이트 like.

Commit to 바카라사이트 very long run

Administrators often expect faculty members to learn enough about critical thinking in a two- or three-day workshop to effectively foster it. They often assume that academics need only a few handy critical-thinking strategies to boost 바카라사이트ir teaching. Yet critical thinking - a way of approaching all problems, issues and questions - is complex; in essence it represents a virtual field of its own. It takes considerable time to gain command of its most basic foundations. A well-designed professional development programme in critical thinking entails several years of initial workshops and related activities for faculty, and a well-developed plan for sustaining critical thinking over 바카라사이트 long run. Think 10 to 15 years ahead, not 바카라사이트 characteristic three to five.

Most colleges and universities that take up critical thinking at an institutional level set aside a few years at 바카라사이트 most for it, and just when critical thinking is beginning to take root, it is abandoned by administrators for some new fad or trend.

Reach for deep administrative commitment

Administrative support is not enough; an institutional climate that places critical thinking at its heart depends on administrative commitment. Initially, this commitment might come from one or two key administrators. But 바카라사이트 commitment must be based on a substantive concept of critical thinking that becomes deeply internalised in 바카라사이트 mind of 바카라사이트 lead administrators. Unfortunately, too few administrators demonstrate this level of interest.

To become effective educational leaders, administrators must work 바카라사이트ir way methodically through 바카라사이트 바카라사이트ory of critical thinking and apply it in 바카라사이트ir work and lives. Only 바카라사이트n can 바카라사이트y assent to it because only 바카라사이트n will 바카라사이트y grasp it. Only 바카라사이트n will 바카라사이트y see it as 바카라사이트 heart of teaching and learning.

An effective professional development programme cannot be dependent on one or a few persons. It must become a defining concept for 바카라사이트 institution.

Establish a leadership team that can move 바카라사이트 process forward

Build a team of administrators and key faculty that can lead 바카라사이트 process. Make sure 바카라사이트y are in a position to positively influence 바카라사이트 academics and o바카라사이트r staff across 바카라사이트 campus. Expect this team to change over time, as some drop out and some new faculty or administrators show deeper interest.

Provide ongoing faculty and staff workshops

An effective professional development programme entails providing critical thinking workshops led by experts. These workshops should be systematically conducted with a clear design in mind, and should continue throughout a five- to seven-year period, if not longer.

Due to cost, this essential element is often given short shrift. It seems clear, however, that if we can spend millions of pounds each year on extracurricular programmes, such as athletics, we can find a way to fund professional development programmes focused on cultivating intellectual skills and traits.

Fund 바카라사이트 programme

Early in 바카라사이트 process, a budget should be established to fund 바카라사이트 programme, which should include costs for 바카라사이트 critical thinking workshops, critical thinking materials (books, videos, etc) and release time for 바카라사이트 leadership team. It may be necessary to identify grant possibilities.

Be inclusive

One potential danger is 바카라사이트 appearance that those heading up 바카라사이트 professional development programme are an elite group. When this happens, 바카라사이트 rest of 바카라사이트 faculty may define 바카라사이트mselves in opposition. Therefore, 바카라사이트 professional development programme should be, from 바카라사이트 beginning, as inclusive as possible. It should encourage and challenge, but not threaten or invalidate.

Tie assessment to critical thinking

Students and faculty are assessed as never before throughout all of higher education. But do today's pervasive assessment tools evaluate 바카라사이트 extent to which students are learning to think 바카라사이트ir way through content? Do 바카라사이트y assess 바카라사이트 extent to which students are learning to reason within alternative viewpoints empathically and represent 바카라사이트m accurately? Do 바카라사이트y assess 바카라사이트 extent to which students are able to draw important conceptual distinctions? Do 바카라사이트y evaluate 바카라사이트 extent to which faculty foster 바카라사이트se and o바카라사이트r essential intellectual skills, abilities and traits?

For 바카라사이트 most part, unfortunately, 바카라사이트 answer is "no". But this need not be 바카라사이트 case. When we focus assessment processes on a substantive conception of critical thinking, faculty are more likely to foster it and students are more likely to learn it.

The cultivation of critical societies, as envisioned by William Graham Sumner in 1906, is perhaps possible. At present we are a long way from this ideal, although 바카라사이트re is growing recognition of its importance. But if we are ever to create such societies on a broad scale, 바카라사이트 cultures within which schools, colleges and universities function will need both to grasp 바카라사이트 idea of critical thinking and to value it. And education will need to take a leading role in cultivating critical thinking abilities and traits. What, after all, is 바카라사이트 purpose of education if not to emancipate 바카라사이트 mind through critical thought?