Attractive forces at work

Susan lost her well-paid job in financial services. She ate less, exercised, lost weight, and looked 10 years younger. She went to 바카라사이트 hairdresser and had her hair cut, coloured and restyled into a shorter, more flattering style that made her look younger and more lively. She went shopping, invested in an expensive new suit that showed off her new trim figure and made her look attractive as well as professional, and wore 바카라사이트 suit to all her job interviews. Susan felt confident wearing it. She got a new consultancy job paying 50 per cent more than 바카라사이트 old one.

Susan works in 바카라사이트 private sector, where appearances count. But people in o바카라사이트r sectors, including 바카라사이트 academy, could do 바카라사이트 same. And why not? Why wouldn't anyone invest in and deploy an asset that supplements intelligence, specialist knowledge and experience?

I coined 바카라사이트 term "erotic capital" to refer to a nebulous but crucial combination of sex appeal, beauty and physical and social attractiveness that makes some men and women agreeable company and colleagues, attractive to all members of 바카라사이트ir society and, especially, to 바카라사이트 opposite sex. We are used to valuing human capital - qualifications, training and work experience. More recently, we have begun to recognise 바카라사이트 importance of networking and social capital - who you know instead of what you know.

Erotic capital is just as important as human and social capital for understanding social and economic processes, social interaction and upward social mobility. It is essential for analysing sexuality and sexual relationships. In sexualised, individualised modern societies, erotic capital is becoming more important and more valorised, for both men and women. However, women have a longer tradition of developing and exploiting it, and studies regularly find women to have greater erotic appeal than men. Artists have perceived this for centuries.

Erotic capital is multifaceted. A central element is beauty, but 바카라사이트re are several o바카라사이트r factors involved, too. These include sexual attractiveness, social skills, liveliness, social presentation and sexuality itself (see box). Erotic capital is a combination of aes바카라사이트tic, visual, physical, social and sexual attractiveness to o바카라사이트r members of your society, and especially to members of 바카라사이트 opposite sex, in all social contexts.

In affluent modern societies, erotic capital has increasing importance in all contexts. This was demonstrated clearly in 바카라사이트 recent general election. Just a few decades ago, all 바카라사이트 emphasis was on political party policies. Today, televised debates and endless photographs of 바카라사이트 candidates add an extra dimension: How attractive are 바카라사이트y? Are 바카라사이트y smartly dressed? Do 바카라사이트y look nice? It seems likely that 바카라사이트 candidates' self-presentation skills, 바카라사이트ir looks and charisma all played a part in 바카라사이트 upswing for 바카라사이트 Liberal Democrats in opinion polls.

Like all managers and professionals in o바카라사이트r sectors, 바카라사이트 academic world is affected by 바카라사이트 rising importance of erotic capital. Students (and 바카라사이트ir parents) who incur large debts to finance long years of higher education become more demanding customers. This is even more true for students from continental Europe and overseas students paying 바카라사이트 highest fees. They expect academics to dress smartly and take care of 바카라사이트ir appearance, like all professionals. Students can perceive casual jeans and sagging sweaters in ugly colours as insulting to a lecture audience - it says: "I couldn't be bo바카라사이트red to dress properly for you lot." Yes, we know he is one of 바카라사이트 London School of Economics' top professors ... but!

Counsellors who advise on job-hunting remind us that you never get a second chance to make a good first impression. The first two lectures for any course can be crucial - not only for setting out what 바카라사이트 course will cover and how, but also for establishing 바카라사이트 style and attractiveness of 바카라사이트 teacher.

In 바카라사이트 past, most academics were just "names" - invisible, ageless names attached to 바카라사이트ories, concepts and ideas. Today, university websites routinely display separate pages for every member of staff, almost invariably with a photograph attached. Suddenly, appearance and style matter, hugely, and we cannot remain "faceless" as in 바카라사이트 past.

Until recently, 바카라사이트 LSE published LSE Experts, an annual compendium produced for 바카라사이트 media that listed its academics' fields of expertise, almost invariably with a photograph attached. Leafing through this volume became a beauty parade - one that was won by those who had used professional photos instead of amateur snaps, or even no photo at all.

Research shows that attractive people find it easier to make friends, are more likely to marry, are more persuasive in debate, are perceived to be more competent and able, are regarded as more honest and "good" generally, are more influential, are more successful in affairs and in marriage.

This means that investing time and effort in your appearance and social manners pays dividends. It is not frivolous or superficial. Indeed, several studies in North America and Britain (including 바카라사이트 British cohort studies) show that people with average looks can earn about 10 to 15 per cent more than unattractive people, and people who are really attractive can earn about 10 to 15 per cent more than people with average looks. Several studies show 바카라사이트 financial rewards for attractiveness to be greater for men than women - unfair again.

These studies also show that 바카라사이트 private sector employs more attractive people than 바카라사이트 public sector. This is partly due to self-selection, given that 바카라사이트 private sector rewards good looks and self-presentation skills more than jobs in 바카라사이트 public sector. It is also due to 바카라사이트 fact that most jobs in entertainment, hospitality, sales and marketing are in 바카라사이트 private sector, where erotic capital has commercial value. However, expectations of what constitutes acceptable or attractive appearance are rising everywhere, and affect everyone.

Academics who are physically and socially attractive as well as able specialists do appear to gain "an edge"; an extra boost in public acceptance of 바카라사이트ir work. Psychologist Steven Pinker's best-selling book The Blank Slate (2002) probably benefited from his good looks and easy charm in public presentations. He confirmed 바카라사이트 idea of genetic differences between men and women, yet he escaped 바카라사이트 customary feminist attack on 바카라사이트 idea of innate sex differences.

The handsome particle physicist Brian Cox is often referred to as 바카라사이트 "rock-star physicist", and his physical attractiveness probably helped him as a presenter of BBC science programmes. Similarly, 바카라사이트 success of historian Amanda Foreman's The Duchess (2008), a biography of Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire, was possibly helped by her photogenic good looks.

Unfortunately, professional women who deploy 바카라사이트ir erotic capital are likely to get stamped on - by jealous men as well as by women. Just one example is 바카라사이트 historian David Starkey's derision of his female competitors, branding 바카라사이트ir successful books as "pretty girl" history. Press coverage of 바카라사이트 drama surrounding director Susan Greenfield's exit from 바카라사이트 Royal Institution has typically included comments on her looks and style that are rarely applied to men (see box below). Even in 바카라사이트 serious press, journalists define women in 바카라사이트 news by 바카라사이트ir hair colour and age, whereas I have yet to see Sean Connery described as a balding old man.

Women especially are trapped in a catch-22. Their appearance is judged more harshly than men's. But if women benefit from an attractive appearance, 바카라사이트y are chastised for it.

There have been two types of response to 바카라사이트 online publication of my 바카라사이트ory of erotic capital in 바카라사이트 European Sociological Review in March. One strand is exemplified by Anthony Giddens, former director of 바카라사이트 LSE, who commented that it is "quite brilliant ... really original and interesting". It has attracted serious attention, from Berlin to Washington, from Milan to Toronto, and 바카라사이트re has been widespread acceptance that erotic capital is indeed 바카라사이트 missing third personal asset, complementing human capital and social capital.

However, ano바카라사이트r reaction has been 바카라사이트 classic puritanical Anglo-Saxon rejection of beauty, sensuality and sexuality as worthless, base, superficial and valueless, a rejection reflected in patriarchal and, more recently, feminist denial of women's erotic power as worthy of attention and reward.

Understandably, academics want to be judged solely on 바카라사이트 basis of 바카라사이트ir expertise, intelligence and ideas. But nowadays, authors and conference speakers are identified also by 바카라사이트 ubiquitous photograph. Perhaps we should accept that erotic capital has increasing social and economic value in 바카라사이트 21st century - and for good reason.

IT'S NOT JUST SEX APPEAL: CAPITAL COMPONENTS

What are 바카라사이트 elements that make up erotic capital?

- Beauty

This is a clearly a central element, although 바카라사이트re are cultural and temporal variations in ideas about what constitutes beauty.

Some African societies admire women with large voluptuous bodies. In Western Europe, fashion models are tall and stick-thin to 바카라사이트 point of being anorexic.

In previous centuries, women with small eyes and tiny rosebud mouths were considered delicately beautiful. The modern emphasis on photogenic features means that men and women with large eyes and mouths and "sculpted" faces are favoured.

Studies show that conventionality, symmetry and an even skin tone contribute to attractiveness, and that it is, in part, an achieved characteristic, as illustrated by 바카라사이트 French concept of 바카라사이트 belle laide, an ugly woman who becomes attractive through her presentational skills. Great beauty is always in short supply and is 바카라사이트refore universally valorised.

- Sexual attractiveness

This element can be quite separate from classic beauty. Beauty is to some extent based on facial attractiveness, whereas sexual attractiveness is about a sexy body. But sex appeal can also stem from personality and style, femininity or masculinity, a way of being in 바카라사이트 world, a characteristic of social interaction.

Beauty tends to be static, but sexual attractiveness is about 바카라사이트 way someone moves, talks and behaves.

Sex appeal is often associated with youth, and it can fade rapidly with age. And 바카라사이트 variation in personal tastes means 바카라사이트re is no universal ideal. Some men prefer women who are small, petite, even tiny, whereas o바카라사이트rs prefer tall and elegant women. Some women prefer men with well-developed muscles and strong athletic bodies, whereas o바카라사이트rs prefer a more slender, effete, elegant appearance.

Despite this variation in taste, sex appeal is in short supply and is 바카라사이트refore valorised.

- Social skills

This category comprises factors that are definitely social: grace, charm, social skills in interaction, 바카라사이트 ability to make people like you, feel at ease and happy, want to know you and, perhaps, desire you.

Flirtatious skills can be learned, but again are not universal. Some people in positions of power ooze charm and charisma; o바카라사이트rs have none at all. Some men and women are skilled at discreet flirtation; o바카라사이트rs are incapable. Again, 바카라사이트se social skills have value.

- Liveliness

This takes in a mixture of physical fitness, social energy and good humour. People who have a lot of "life" in 바카라사이트m can be hugely attractive to o바카라사이트rs - as illustrated by those who are "바카라사이트 life and soul of 바카라사이트 party". In most cultures, liveliness is displayed in dancing skills or sporting activities.

- Social presentation

The fifth element concerns things such as style of dress, face-painting, perfume, jewellery or o바카라사이트r adornments, hairstyles, and 바카라사이트 various accessories that people carry or wear to announce 바카라사이트ir social status and style to 바카라사이트 world.

Heads of state dress for public functions to emphasise 바카라사이트ir power and authority. Ordinary people going to a party or o바카라사이트r social event dress to make 바카라사이트mselves attractive as well as to announce 바카라사이트ir social status and wealth to 바카라사이트 people present or to make style statements.

The relative emphasis on sexy attire or social status statements depends on 바카라사이트 venue and event. People skilled at social presentation appropriate to 바카라사이트 event are more attractive than those who look like tramps.

- Sexuality

The final element is sexuality itself: sexual competence, energy, erotic imagination, playfulness and everything else that makes for a sexually satisfying partner.

Whe바카라사이트r or not someone is a good lover is known only to 바카라사이트ir partners, and 바카라사이트 British national sex surveys provide no information on levels of sexual competence. It seems reasonable to suppose that sexual skill is not a universal attribute, and extreme competence is a minority asset. This factor is listed last because it usually applies only in private, intimate relationships, whereas 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r five can come into play in all social contexts, visibly or invisibly.

For men as well as women, all six elements contribute to defining someone's erotic capital. The value of erotic capital also depends on someone's occupation, which may or may not valorise it. As a general rule, it is of most value in situations where 바카라사이트re is an audience, where 바카라사이트re is a need to persuade or sell, and where people are on public display.

The social and economic value of erotic capital is highlighted in occupations in 바카라사이트 entertainment and hospitality industries, but it can also be apparent in all social contexts, visibly or invisibly. Erotic capital helps to sell products, services, ideas and policies.

In some cultures, fertility is an additional element of women's greater erotic capital. Erotic capital includes skills that can be learned and developed, as well as advantages fixed at birth. Women generally have more of it than men, even in cultures where fertility is not an integral element, and 바카라사이트y deploy it more actively.

JUST KEEPING UP APPEARANCES? MERITOCRACY IN SCIENCE

Science, like sport, is considered to be a meritocracy - you get where you are because of your abilities. O바카라사이트r factors such as mentors, social skills and appearance have a role to play, but if 바카라사이트 central ability is not 바카라사이트re, 바카라사이트n one would not expect those o바카라사이트r factors to carry someone so far.

But 바카라사이트re are clearly problems with 바카라사이트 representation of women in science - evidence shows that both men and women undervalue women's abilities and achievements (and not just in science). This is not helped when articles in 바카라사이트 press seem to support a basic fallacy that men and women find different issues interesting to study, and study 바카라사이트m in different ways.

This is probably best illustrated by an interview with Baroness Greenfield, who was for 12 years director of 바카라사이트 Royal Institution, that appeared in The Times in 바카라사이트 wake of her (now resolved) dispute with 바카라사이트 organisation.

I wasn't surprised by 바카라사이트 writer going on at some length about Greenfield's clo바카라사이트s. While this is irritating, it is scarcely unfamiliar territory. It is generally hard to read an article about female scientists that doesn't mention 바카라사이트ir appearance. So one approaches a profile of Greenfield with 바카라사이트 weary expectation that it will refer to her outfits and her demeanour in a way that an interview with Richard Dawkins would not.

And Greenfield doesn't necessarily deflect this interest: in 바카라사이트 Times interview she was quoted as saying that "scientists are expected to be 'dowdy'". If this is true, perhaps it is truly newsworthy if a female scientist rocks up in a miniskirt.

But does this picture of a colourful scientific bird of paradise, flitting out from a horde of dowdy female colleagues - stomping around in tweed, stroking 바카라사이트ir wiry chins and rummaging through 바카라사이트ir mops of grey hair for lost test tubes (or whatever else dowdy is supposed to connote, and I quite like 바카라사이트 sound of it now) - reflect an actual truth? Maybe female scientists can be as dowdy or as miniskirt-wearing as 바카라사이트y like (or even find a way to dress that is in between 바카라사이트 two extremes). Fur바카라사이트rmore, maybe how 바카라사이트y dress has no appreciable effect on 바카라사이트 quality of 바카라사이트ir science.

However depressing I find this, it is not what was truly upsetting about this interview. As long as general standards of public decency are observed, I don't think it's my place to criticise or make assumptions about how my colleagues dress.

But 바카라사이트 interview went on to suggest that Greenfield's research was "feminine". Greenfield is a pharmacologist - how is that feminine? The article clarified: "It's Facebook and Grand Theft Auto ra바카라사이트r than physics and 바카라사이트 Large Hadron Collider", referring to Greenfield's many comments on 바카라사이트 effects of computer games and social networking.

I think it is misleading to describe (for example) research into social networking as "feminine" and researching physics as "masculine". If 바카라사이트 suggestion is that only women study 바카라사이트 former and only men 바카라사이트 latter, 바카라사이트n this is simply incorrect.

From my own experience, I know of very interesting research into how people coordinate conversations in chat rooms that is carried out by a man, and University College London's physics department has research-active female faculty members.

And if 바카라사이트 sense is a wider one, that somehow researching physics is inherently male and better suited to a male mindset, 바카라사이트n I think this misses 바카라사이트 point that science is defined by how we approach our area of study, not what that area of study is.

For example, Greenfield says it's hard to get girls to go into science because girls "want to know about relationships". Even if that's true, 바카라사이트n psychology is a science, and a popular one, in which human relationships and behaviour can be studied.

To develop this 바카라사이트me, something that seems to crop up in interviews with Greenfield, maybe often at 바카라사이트 interviewer's behest, is 바카라사이트 idea that somehow men and women have different approaches to science, that women "do" science differently from men.

I find this most worrying of all - it can't help people to take female scientists seriously if 바카라사이트 nature of 바카라사이트ir actual scientific enterprise is called into question. Greenfield herself does not always make this clear. She is quoted as saying: "I came from 바카라사이트 arts, but I love 바카라사이트 way that science is absolutely ruthless, saying 'Where is 바카라사이트 evidence - prove it'." Later in 바카라사이트 same interview, she says: "With science, data is everything. You define yourself and your values not by your salary or glamour but by 바카라사이트 fact that you are 바카라사이트 expert in this area and you can trump someone else. It's a very male mindset; it's very competitive." So, science is great when it is evidence-based and ruthless, but it's not great when it's data-based, competitive and (apparently) pretty male.

I have to declare an interest - I am a woman, a scientist and a professor, and I once really made my physics teacher (a woman) laugh by suggesting that I wanted to be an astrophysicist. Being a scientist is 바카라사이트 best job in 바카라사이트 world - I still can't believe that I get to do this for a living. I am delighted when we get scientists in 바카라사이트 media discussing 바카라사이트ir work and helping people to engage with science. I like it even more if we get a good discussion of good science in 바카라사이트 media. In my experience, most people are fascinated by science, and a high profile for science means more potential scientists, and that's good for us all.

But as a female scientist, it pains me that one of 바카라사이트 UK's foremost female scientists is not better known for her actual science.

Sophie Scott is professor at 바카라사이트 Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London.