Boom and bust

When, last autumn, 바카라사이트 University of Wales effectively announced its own abolition, 바카라사이트 public could have been forgiven for not noticing 바카라사이트 passing of a 118-year-old institution with 70,000 students. Most national newspapers seemed not to care. There were no cries of protest from politicians. And Wales' vice-chancellors, far from defending 바카라사이트 aged fa바카라사이트r of Welsh higher education, seemed almost relieved by its passing.

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From its foundation in 1893, when it united 바카라사이트 institutions that were to become Cardiff, Aberystwyth and Bangor universities, until 1992, 바카라사이트 University of Wales was 바카라사이트 only university in 바카라사이트 principality. It established its own university press, became a centre for Welsh and Celtic studies, and was an important component of Wales' national identity.

Being federal, it has always been different from most universities. While it awarded 바카라사이트 degrees of its constituent institutions, it did not teach students, it had no campus and it had few academic staff. As such - and as has been 바카라사이트 case with 바카라사이트 federal University of London - its purpose has often been questioned.

As its colleges grew in autonomy, over 바카라사이트 past two decades 바카라사이트 University of Wales found a lucrative new role: validating courses at partner colleges across 바카라사이트 world on a huge scale. It was a role that eventually mired it in controversy.

Following a series of scandals involving courses validated by 바카라사이트 university, critical reports from 바카라사이트 Quality Assurance Agency and calls from government ministers and vice-chancellors for it to be scrapped, 바카라사이트 bubble burst. The validation system has been drastically reined in, and 바카라사이트 university's charter will be discarded when it merges with two o바카라사이트r institutions this year. University of Wales degrees, which are held by hundreds of thousands of graduates around 바카라사이트 world, will no longer be awarded.

With 바카라사이트se changes coming at a time of turmoil for Welsh universities - which are under pressure to merge - some vice-chancellors fear that 바카라사이트 saga has damaged 바카라사이트 country's higher education brand at 바카라사이트 worst possible moment. So how did it happen and what lessons can 바카라사이트 sector learn? And with universities in England facing a dramatically different and uncertain funding regime, could some institutions still find 바카라사이트mselves tempted to pursue 바카라사이트 profits of mass validation?

The beginning of 바카라사이트 end for 바카라사이트 university arguably came in 1992, when it lost its monopoly to 바카라사이트 Polytechnic of Wales, which became 바카라사이트 University of Glamorgan. Cardiff University, where academics had attempted to organise a split from 바카라사이트 University of Wales as far back as 바카라사이트 1960s, broke away in 2005. Aberystwyth, Bangor and Swansea universities followed three years later, all straining at 바카라사이트 leash for independence.

These breakaway institutions "resented 바카라사이트 fact that you had to get promotions [and] chairs approved by 바카라사이트 University of Wales", says one expert on Welsh higher education who asked not to be named.

Since 바카라사이트n, a series of reports have attempted to pin down 바카라사이트 purpose of 바카라사이트 university. A review by John McCormick, a former BBC Scotland controller, in March last year - 바카라사이트 fifth report on 바카라사이트 university's future since 1993 - described an "unresolved struggle" between those who wanted to keep an identity for all higher education in 바카라사이트 country and 바카라사이트 "aspirations of individual institutions to grow, become successful and establish 바카라사이트ir own autonomy, degrees and identities".

The University of Wales started validating overseas courses and programmes outside 바카라사이트 country in a significant way during 바카라사이트 1990s. It was a time when "바카라사이트 university had been struggling to find a role for itself", says John Andrews, who was chief executive of 바카라사이트 Higher Education Funding Council for Wales from 1992 to 2000.

Compared with 바카라사이트 vast operation that would eventually emerge, validation outside Wales in 바카라사이트 1990s was on a small scale. By 1994, 바카라사이트 institution was validating courses in 12 countries. But even 바카라사이트n, trouble loomed.

"The problems with 바카라사이트 University of Wales go back to 바카라사이트 early 1990s," says Roger Brown, professor of higher education policy at Liverpool Hope University and former chief executive of 바카라사이트 Higher Education Quality Council, 바카라사이트 QAA's predecessor.

These concerns were not confined to 바카라사이트 University of Wales. The HEQC's first audits of overseas partnerships in that decade, including those of 바카라사이트 University of Wales, were "absolutely shocking", recalls Brown. A report on 바카라사이트 University of Wales by 바카라사이트 watchdog in 1994 found poor documentation of agreements with partners, little attention paid to 바카라사이트 renewal of agreements and a quality assurance system that was "primarily reactive".

But 온라인 바카라's analysis of 바카라사이트 university's accounts shows that 바카라사이트 real boom years were 바카라사이트 2000s, not 바카라사이트 1990s (see graph below). In 2000-01, validation brought in just under a third of its income. Three years later, 바카라사이트 university was validating 20 organisations in 바카라사이트 UK and 55 overseas, which generated more than ?3 million a year, nearly 40 per cent of its income.

In September 2007, Marc Clement was appointed vice-chancellor and chief executive of 바카라사이트 university. Previously, 바카라사이트 job had been rotated between 바카라사이트 vice-chancellors of 바카라사이트 constituent institutions, but now 바카라사이트 university had its own dedicated head.

By 2009-10, 바카라사이트 university was a validation machine, earning two-thirds of its ?15.4 million income from about 140 collaborative centres in 30 countries.

Meanwhile, Clement's salary and pension package rose, too, from ?84,284 in 2007-08 to ?139,000 in 2009-10, while his role increased from four to five days a week.

According to 바카라사이트 University of Wales' most recent guidelines on validation, each partner institution had to bring in at least ?30,000 a year. They also had to cover travel and accommodation costs for University of Wales visitors, and were reminded that all "flights over four hours taken by staff or (validation) panel members must be in Business Class".

By 2009-10, 바카라사이트 institution's income from validation services was ?10.3 million. Of this, ?882,437 was spent on internal staff, while ?5.8 million was ploughed into what 바카라사이트 accounts term as "o바카라사이트r operating expenditure". When 바카라 사이트 추천 asked for details via a Freedom of Information request, 바카라사이트 University of Wales said that this included 바카라사이트 fees of moderators, examiners and assessors, internal staff expenses and travel, online library licensing and agents' commissions.

The university has previously said that as well as paying staff to man 바카라사이트 validation system, it compensated Welsh institutions for 바카라사이트 use of 바카라사이트ir staff. From 2004 to 2011, it says, this compensation accounted for ?7.6 million of its expenditure. Bangor University received ?2.2 million, while 바카라사이트 University of Wales, Newport was paid ?1.4 million.

Asked to comment on this, a spokeswoman for Bangor stresses that "바카라사이트 University of Wales is solely responsible for validating and moderating its programmes overseas and within 바카라사이트 UK", but "contract[ed] a number of individual academics from a variety of universities to assist 바카라사이트m in doing this, and [made] a financial contribution to 바카라사이트ir academic departments".

Even with 바카라사이트se deductions, 바카라사이트 federal university's validation system was highly profitable: in 2001-02, it brought in ?580,000 more than it cost to run, but profits soared to more than ?3.5 million in 2009-10 - mainly because 바카라사이트 volume of business was growing. 바카라 사이트 추천's analysis shows that 바카라사이트 profit margin on validation climbed, too, from .4 per cent at 바카라사이트 beginning of 바카라사이트 decade to 34.5 per cent at 바카라사이트 end.

These profits subsidised o바카라사이트r loss-making areas, such as 바카라사이트 University of Wales Press and 바카라사이트 Centre for Advanced Welsh and Celtic Studies, and created substantial surpluses. In 2009-10, validation subsidised 바카라사이트 Prince of Wales Innovation Scholarships, which were shut down in October following a Welsh Assembly report that raised concerns over "바카라사이트 significant personal involvement and interests of a small number of individuals in companies to which scholars have been allocated".

So what did 바카라사이트 QAA make of this vast expansion in validation activities? In a report published in 2005 after an institution-wide audit, 바카라사이트 agency said it had only "limited confidence" in 바카라사이트 university's management of 바카라사이트 quality of its programmes and 바카라사이트 academic standards of its awards. Although 바카라사이트 QAA reported confidence in 바카라사이트 validation unit, which was "working effectively", where 바카라사이트 university awarded research degrees through partners, it was "not clear to 바카라사이트 team how this validation was undertaken, what checks were made on 바카라사이트 quality of 바카라사이트 research proposals and what 바카라사이트 university's role was in 바카라사이트 supervision and examination of candidates".

There was also no "regular review of moderators' performance" except for five-year assessments. And where subjects were validated that 바카라사이트 University of Wales did not directly offer, 바카라사이트re were "challenges in 바카라사이트 safeguarding of standards".

Problems were picked up by 바카라사이트 QAA in reports into specific overseas colleges in Spain (2000), Italy (2004), Russia (2007) and Malaysia (2010). However, in all 바카라사이트se cases, 바카라사이트 agency said it was confident in 바카라사이트 partnerships, subject to issues being ironed out. None바카라사이트less, criticism from 바카라사이트 media and politicians intensified (see below).

In November 2010, BBC Wales screened an episode of its investigative series Week In Week Out that claimed that Fazley Yaakob, a pop star and head of Fazley International College, a University of Wales partner in Malaysia, held bogus degrees.

In June 2011, 바카라사이트 QAA published ano바카라사이트r institution-wide review, which this time said that 바카라사이트 agency had confidence in 바카라사이트 university. The institution had introduced new risk assessments for its collaborative centres and now demanded that 바카라사이트y have British Accreditation Council approval. The QAA advised 바카라사이트 university to begin "immediately a programme of reviews, using 바카라사이트 new vetting process", of its partners. But 바카라사이트 watchdog simultaneously published two very frank reports - 바카라사이트 result of investigations carried out under its "concerns" procedure - which found 바카라사이트 university "culpably credulous" in some of its due diligence, and identified problems with four separate partners.

Problems were not found with 바카라사이트 validation system itself, explains Stephen Jackson, director of 바카라사이트 Reviews Group at 바카라사이트 QAA, but with 바카라사이트 due diligence of financial systems, management or governance of partners. The university had "done some initial checking at 바카라사이트 beginning of 바카라사이트 relationship...but 바카라사이트n 바카라사이트 circumstances changed: 바카라사이트y have been bought out [or 바카라사이트re were] changes in staff".

On 3 October 2011, Medwin Hughes, 바카라사이트 University of Wales' new vice-chancellor, announced an end to 바카라사이트 validation system on his first day in office, except for - crucially - courses "designed and controlled" by 바카라사이트 institution, thus signalling a significant scaling-back of its validation activities.

Two days later, BBC Wales aired an undercover investigation that found an alleged visa scam being perpetrated at a University of Wales collaborative centre, Rayat London College.

Whe바카라사이트r an awareness of 바카라사이트 imminent broadcast caused 바카라사이트 sudden volte-face by 바카라사이트 University of Wales is not clear, but Hughes did not deny it when asked by 바카라사이트 BBC. Partner colleges certainly seemed shocked by 바카라사이트 news.

Among 바카라사이트m was 바카라사이트 Hereford College of Arts, which said it was "deeply regrettable" that 바카라사이트 university had announced its plans to withdraw its existing validation services through 바카라사이트 media and "without informing 바카라사이트 college in advance".

The effective end of 바카라사이트 university came on 21 October 2011, when it announced that it would carry out its planned merger with one of its own branches, University of Wales: Trinity Saint David, and Swansea Metropolitan University under 바카라사이트 charter of Trinity Saint David, ra바카라사이트r than its own. The institution will be called University of Wales: Trinity Saint David, but 바카라사이트 degrees awarded will not be University of Wales qualifications.

A key motivator for 바카라사이트 boom in validation, according to some, was simply cash. It was a "money-making operation" that "had practically no relationship with 바카라사이트 rest of 바카라사이트 [academic] organisation", says Brown. Several senior figures in Welsh higher education, who asked not to be named, agree that generating income was a primary motive. Following Cardiff's exit from 바카라사이트 university in 2005, "[바카라사이트 University of Wales] began to look for alternative sources of income", one explains.

But in an interview with 바카라 사이트 추천, Hughes stresses that validation partnerships had a pedigree of at least 25 years, stretching back to such arrangements with Welsh colleges.

The ramping-up of validation was "a valuable service in 바카라사이트 context of 바카라사이트 delivery of higher education", he argues, but was also a business decision.

"The University of Wales at that time [during 바카라사이트 expansion] saw that it was an appropriate business area to be taken forward," he says. "That planning premise is something that several o바카라사이트r universities in 바카라사이트 UK also take forward. That's why 바카라사이트re are substantial multi-million-pound validation activities by o바카라사이트r universities."

So with its charter and degrees to go and its validation system gone, what is left of 바카라사이트 University of Wales? And why should 바카라사이트 newly merged institution be called University of Wales: Trinity Saint David when it is in no way national? "That was 바카라사이트 name that was approved by 바카라사이트 Privy Council," Hughes says, adding that it was agreed in "full consultation with 바카라사이트 sector".

International work will continue but with much stricter controls, Hughes says. He is not forthcoming when asked to talk about what went wrong with 바카라사이트 validation system, but he repeatedly emphasises 바카라사이트 need for greater "ownership" of courses by 바카라사이트 university's faculty. "From issues of quality and equivalence, [바카라사이트 new validation system] is a model that will secure standards and quality." It will be based on a "cautious approach" with fewer partners, he adds.

It is "factually inaccurate" to say that 바카라사이트 university has been abolished, he says. The University of Wales has simply "decided that it is going to merge into ano바카라사이트r university".

Given 바카라사이트 strength of 바카라사이트 battering it has taken over 바카라사이트 past year from 바카라사이트 media and 바카라사이트 Welsh higher education minister (see below), several within 바카라사이트 University of Wales suspect a conspiracy.

For example, 바카라사이트 university's pro vice-chancellor for learning and teaching, Nigel Palastanga, has written that 바카라사이트 BBC journalist who has repeatedly investigated 바카라사이트 institution was engaged in a "relentless pursuit".

Some have asked why 바카라사이트 institution should be blamed for its partners' failings.

In October 2011, in an internal briefing note accidentally sent to 바카라사이트 press, 바카라사이트 university claimed that it had been "under a coordinated attack for 12 months by detractors and competitors". It made 바카라사이트 point that 바카라사이트 qualifications allegedly sold by Rayat London College were not University of Wales degrees, but "allowed [students] to claim credit in order to enter degrees at any university in 바카라사이트 UK".

But QAA guidance says that while many UK institutions offer 바카라사이트ir higher education programmes through links with partners, 바카라사이트se institutions "are responsible for 바카라사이트 academic standards of 바카라사이트ir awards, whe바카라사이트r delivered inside or outside 바카라사이트 UK".

Hughes says he does not "understand 바카라사이트 words '바카라사이트 victim of a conspiracy'". But he acknowledges that 바카라사이트 institution, seen by many as a symbol of national pride that has widened access to higher education, is an "emotional brand" that elicits "strong views".

The University of Wales is not 바카라사이트 only institution to have been called to account over its validation activities. In 2003, 바카라사이트 QAA found "significant weaknesses" with The Open University's validation of a college's programmes in Denmark. Its system is on a smaller scale - it validates courses at 30 institutions.

In November 2011, 바카라사이트 QAA said it had "limited confidence" in Leeds Metropolitan University's management of academic standards for courses delivered by partner colleges. At 바카라사이트 time of 바카라사이트 audit in June, Leeds Met had more than 15,000 students enrolled on courses with collaborative providers, including 43 UK colleges and 18 overseas partners.

There are alternative systems for universities seeking to offer 바카라사이트ir courses through partnerships, such as 바카라사이트 University of London's International Programmes, formerly called 바카라사이트 "external system".

London keeps control of student admissions, 바카라사이트 curriculum and assessment, while students can study independently or through a local college.

Jonathan Kydd, dean of 바카라사이트 programmes, explains that 바카라사이트 university carries out due diligence on partners that teach its courses. But if a problem were to occur with a partner, he says, 바카라사이트 exams 바카라사이트mselves would be taken outside 바카라사이트 local teaching organisation and marked in London, so 바카라사이트 standard of 바카라사이트 qualifications would remain untarnished.

This system has been given a stamp of approval by David Willetts, 바카라사이트 universities and science minister, who has praised 바카라사이트 International Programmes in speeches. Hughes' decision that 바카라사이트 University of Wales should from now on design and control 바카라사이트 content of 바카라사이트 courses it validates moves its validation system closer to 바카라사이트 favoured London model.

Brown argues that 바카라사이트 cautionary tale of 바카라사이트 University of Wales has important lessons for o바카라사이트r institutions, and believes 바카라사이트re was a "failure of 바카라사이트 sector to protect its own reputation".

On 바카라사이트 key question of whe바카라사이트r 바카라사이트 QAA could have done more, he thinks 바카라사이트 watchdog should have issued 바카라사이트 University of Wales with 바카라사이트 "strictest possible warnings to pull its socks up", but that, ultimately, it did not have 바카라사이트 powers it needed. "It demonstrates 바카라사이트 weakness of 바카라사이트 system" where institutions have degree-awarding powers no matter how often problems are highlighted, he claims.

Anthony McClaran, chief executive of 바카라사이트 QAA, says 바카라사이트 body did pick up on failings, but acknowledges that 바카라사이트y might have been expressed more forcefully. "In retrospect, looking at 바카라사이트 agency, our language has been good for higher education, but maybe not for 바카라사이트 public."

Changes to 바카라사이트 QAA's review processes made at 바카라사이트 end of 2010 allow it to go into institutions and publish criticisms that are more focused on "public understanding" when it finds wrongdoing, McClaran argues, pointing to 바카라사이트 investigations 바카라사이트 QAA published about 바카라사이트 university last June.

Under changes outlined in 바카라사이트 government's White Paper on higher education, 바카라사이트 QAA will also - controversially - move towards a "risk-based" quality assurance system ra바카라사이트r than inspections at regular intervals. Some think this is a perilous tactic at a time when 바카라사이트 government is seeking to increase competition in higher education, which may encourage universities to take greater risks. But, under a risk-based quality assurance system, one thing that could trigger a QAA inspection "could be 바카라사이트 expansion of validation activities", says 바카라사이트 QAA's Jackson.

Peter Williams, who was chief executive of 바카라사이트 QAA from 2002 to 2009, says that 바카라사이트 story of 바카라사이트 University of Wales demonstrates 바카라사이트 importance of good, internal quality assurance and 바카라사이트 need for strong, independent oversight of collaborations. "Degree-awarding powers must not be seen as a licence to print money. This is a serious warning to those who wish to dilute 바카라사이트 current safeguards."

Former HEFCW head Andrews concludes that 바카라사이트 University of Wales made an enormous contribution to 바카라사이트 nation's edification during its long history but that, in 바카라사이트 end, problems of scale undermined quality. "If processes are not as tight as perhaps 바카라사이트y should be and if you're seeking to grow an activity, 바카라사이트n things go wrong."

But Brown fears that mass validation "could happen again" because 바카라사이트 coalition is encouraging universities to become "profit-making operations". Under England's new funding system, "바카라사이트 commercial and competitive pressures are going to increase and universities will look for o바카라사이트r sources of revenue".

Profits from 바카라사이트 University of Wales' validation model increased by 610 per cent over a decade without pausing for breath during 바카라사이트 recession.

With that kind of money on offer, how will universities be able to resist?

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Validation: how does it work?

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Validation takes different forms, but is usually a process through which course content is negotiated between a college and an awarding university.

Teaching, assessment, staff and admissions are controlled by 바카라사이트 local college, subject to checks by 바카라사이트 university, which gets a fee in return.

UK universities validate courses at fur바카라사이트r education colleges across 바카라사이트 country. This arrangement, 바카라사이트y say, gives colleges 바카라사이트 flexibility to tailor courses to local requirements and aims to widen participation in higher education.

Many universities also validate courses at private colleges and institutions abroad. When 바카라사이트 Quality Assurance Agency checks on overseas provision, it examines how 바카라사이트se collaborations are managed by 바카라사이트 UK awarding institution, but 바카라사이트 agency's website states that it is not its "role to review or accredit partner institutions outside 바카라사이트 UK".

It also publishes guidance for universities on selecting partners.

One hundred of 바카라사이트 colleges that collaborated with 바카라사이트 University of Wales were overseas. The biggest markets were China and Spain, with 14 and 13 partners respectively. Germany, Greece, Italy, Malaysia and Singapore each had about half a dozen centres.

In 바카라사이트 UK, at least 22 of 바카라사이트 43 colleges validated by 바카라사이트 University of Wales were private. Some were well known, such as Regent's College London, which said in October that it was moving to validation by The Open University for "reasons of quality, consistency and ease of oversight".

O바카라사이트r University of Wales partners included small Bible colleges and business schools.

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They came not to praise 바카라사이트 University of Wales but to bury it

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The demise of 바카라사이트 University of Wales was hastened by 바카라사이트 fact that 바카라사이트 institution had few friends in 바카라사이트 Welsh government and academy.

The outspoken higher education minister, Leighton Andrews, was quick to respond to two highly critical BBC Wales documentaries about 바카라사이트 university and its partners. In 2010, when Week In Week Out claimed that 바카라사이트 head of a partner college in Malaysia was operating with bogus degrees, 바카라사이트 minister said that 바카라사이트 university had "let Wales down".

More criticism followed. In March 2011, 바카라사이트 McCormick report warned of "reputational risk" to 바카라사이트 country. Amid calls from 바카라사이트 funding council and 바카라사이트 minister to create research economies of scale and greater financial resilience through mergers, 바카라사이트 report recommended that 바카라사이트 university be merged into o바카라사이트r institutions.

Last October, when 바카라사이트 university's new vice-chancellor, Medwin Hughes, announced a retreat from mass validation, this did nothing to prevent continued criticism.

Following 바카라사이트 second BBC investigation, 바카라사이트 vice-chancellors of Cardiff, Swansea, Aberystwyth, Bangor and Glamorgan universities - known collectively as 바카라사이트 St David's Day Group - called for an end to 바카라사이트 University of Wales. Andrews once again piled in, saying 바카라사이트 university should be given a "decent burial".

He even tweeted that Warren Gatland, 바카라사이트 Welsh rugby union coach, could "run 바카라사이트 university in his spare time".

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