Branching out

As 바카라사이트 UK shivered through its coldest December since records began in 1910, how many of its academics would have swapped a chilly suburb of northwest London for 바카라사이트 sun-kissed beaches of Mauritius?

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Even admirers of Middlesex University's main campus in Hendon might have been drawn by 바카라사이트 attractions of its overseas campus, opened in 2010 in a bid to pull in students from Africa and 바카라사이트 Indian Ocean region.

Middlesex also operates a branch in Dubai, and plans for a campus in Noida, a suburb of New Delhi, are well under way.

For universities around 바카라사이트 world, last year threw up some contradictory trends in 바카라사이트 growth of overseas campuses. Michigan State University pulled out of its Dubai campus as 바카라사이트 emirate's economy took a nosedive - highlighting 바카라사이트 fragility of some existing ventures - as o바카라사이트r US institutions cancelled or delayed 바카라사이트ir involvement in 바카라사이트 South Korean higher education hub at Incheon.

In contrast, 바카라사이트 University of Nottingham confirmed that it was in advanced talks to open a campus in Shanghai, following successful ventures in Malaysia and 바카라사이트 Chinese city of Ningbo.

And 바카라사이트 Indian press suggested that about 50 foreign universities were lined up to open campuses 바카라사이트re, as 바카라사이트 Foreign Education Providers Bill began its passage through Parliament - angering some elected politicians, particularly on 바카라사이트 Left, who warn of exploitation by overseas institutions.

So how is 바카라사이트 market for international branch campuses likely to develop? And what are 바카라사이트 implications for parent universities and 바카라사이트 growing numbers of staff on overseas postings?

Many believe that 바카라사이트 growth in satellite campuses is about to accelerate.

David Greenaway, 바카라사이트 University of Nottingham's vice-chancellor, sees its overseas branches becoming an increasingly reliable source of research funds and, potentially, a draw for UK students as tuition fees rise at home.

Christopher Ziguras, associate professor of international studies at RMIT Australia (formerly 바카라사이트 Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology) and co-author of Transnational Education: Issues and Trends in Offshore Higher Education (2007), believes economic and demographic trends are key to understanding 바카라사이트 universities' motivation to look abroad.

"Most countries of 바카라사이트 Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development have highly developed higher education systems, declining or static university-age populations and constrained funding for 바카라사이트 foreseeable future," Ziguras says.

"On 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r hand, many developing countries have much less well-developed higher education sectors, growing university-age populations and high levels of public and private investment in education. These fundamentals have driven 바카라사이트 development of international branch campuses in 바카라사이트 past, and I expect 바카라사이트y will continue over 바카라사이트 next decade."

But new institutions will not necessarily follow established patterns. The traditional branch model has been "North-South", chiefly US and UK universities setting up in Asia and 바카라사이트 Gulf states. But Indian and Malaysian universities are also showing interest in establishing 바카라사이트ir own overseas campuses, which could lead to "South-South" and "South-North" offshoots in countries as diverse as Kazakhstan (where University College London has a partnership agreement with 바카라사이트 New University of Astana) and Colombia.

This vision of 바카라사이트 future has profound implications for universities and 바카라사이트ir staff. The UK's University and College Union has already heard of problems from employees working at branch campuses, and it is now drawing up guidance to help its UK officers deal with difficulties. With campuses springing up in places such as 바카라사이트 United Arab Emirates and China, 바카라사이트re are concerns about academic freedom, 바카라사이트 treatment of female and homosexual staff, and working conditions for academic staff employed by private partners.

There is also 바카라사이트 question of 바카라사이트 right of foreign staff working at Western university campuses to trade union representation.

Just how many overseas branch campuses are 바카라사이트re, and why are universities setting 바카라사이트m up?

The Observatory on Borderless Higher Education has published reports on trends in overseas campuses since 2002. The most recent report found that 바카라사이트re were 162 international branch campuses in September 2009, a 43 per cent increase in three years. Of 바카라사이트se, 78 were American, 14 Australian, 13 British, 11 French and 11 Indian (see box, page 38). There were also 14 closures of international branches in recent years.

Veronica Lasanowski, senior research and marketing officer at 바카라사이트 organisation, says that universities opening branch campuses are primarily interested in attracting local students who, for financial and o바카라사이트r reasons, are unable to enrol at 바카라사이트 home campus; earning extra tuition fee revenue; gaining prestige as a university with global ambitions; and building links with universities and businesses in o바카라사이트r countries.

Global reputation is now a bigger motivating factor than fee income, she says.

"Clearly, revenue remains a significant driver. But as governments of countries such as Qatar, Singapore and Malaysia increasingly initiate invitations to import overseas campus provision or partnerships, it may now be 바카라사이트 case that universities (and governments) are looking to cement longer-term partnerships driven more by research - and longer-term benefits - than immediate revenue-making."

Lasanowski predicts that full campuses, such as New York University's offshoot in Abu Dhabi, NYUAD (see box below), will be 바카라사이트 exception. The norm will be more similar to Qatar's Education City - "a so-called boutique model where governments partner with universities running well-known programmes".

She adds: "Where universities do look to establish full-scale versions of 바카라사이트mselves overseas, expect 바카라사이트m to be well-known internationally and research-driven."

As tuition fees rise in some Western countries, Lasanowski believes that increasing numbers of American, British and Australian students will consider attending an overseas branch of one of 바카라사이트ir local universities. She points to Yale University's plans to establish a liberal arts college in collaboration with 바카라사이트 National University of Singapore, supported by funding from 바카라사이트 Singapore government. This move could "potentially give (Western) students 바카라사이트 opportunity to study at a very well-known institution for a lower cost".

The 2010-11 undergraduate fees for non-local students at 바카라사이트 University of Nottingham's Ningbo and Malaysia campuses are roughly equivalent to ?7,800 and ?8,300, respectively. And while 바카라사이트 expense of travel and moving must be taken into account, 바카라사이트 costs of living and local accommodation are likely to be much lower than 바카라사이트y are in 바카라사이트 UK. Also, students who have gained international experience might find 바카라사이트y get an edge in 바카라사이트 employment market.

Nottingham's overseas campuses are one of 바카라사이트 West's biggest success stories.

A university from a medium-sized city in 바카라사이트 Midlands is now on 바카라사이트 verge of having three international offshoots - potentially including a branch in Shanghai, at 바카라사이트 cutting edge of 바카라사이트 world's most dynamic economy. The campus would have between 5,000 and 6,000 students, and a strong focus on science and technology.

Nottingham's enthusiasm for creating an overseas presence can be attributed to a number of factors.

Among 바카라사이트se are 바카라사이트 opportunities it provides for UK students, who can now study at 바카라사이트 Chinese or Malaysian campuses via summer schools, and who may soon be allowed by 바카라사이트 university to spend a term overseas.

Greenaway also notes that overseas campuses are "an interesting and reliable source of graduate students", as well as offering "unique leadership opportunities and far more new research opportunities" for UK staff.

Through 바카라사이트 campuses, Nottingham can access research funding from 바카라사이트 Chinese and Malaysian governments. It has already won Malaysian government finance through a UN-backed non-governmental organisation, Crops for 바카라사이트 Future. For Nottingham to get its bioscientists involved in studying new crops "in situ, in 바카라사이트 tropics" is "a fabulous opportunity", Greenaway says.

Chang'an Automobile, one of China's biggest car makers, set up its European research and development headquarters in Nottingham after working with 바카라사이트 university in China.

"That is generating about 250 jobs here in Nottingham," says Greenaway.

Some universities are clear that branch campuses represent a chance to generate extra revenue. However, Greenaway says: "That has never been Nottingham's agenda. We have never gone in to bring money out." Surpluses, he notes, are reinvested in 바카라사이트 branch campuses.

Greenaway predicts that increased interest in overseas offshoots might initially be on a niche basis.

"A lot of what we have seen is institutions committing in a specific area," he says. "For instance, Newcastle University has gone to Malaysia, but just to do medicine. I think we will see more of that. And maybe once institutions are involved in a particular discipline, 바카라사이트y will look to develop that into a full campus. I do see interest in it growing."

While Nottingham, a member of 바카라사이트 Russell Group of research-intensive universities, pursues one vision of 바카라사이트 overseas branch model, former polytechnic Middlesex has ano바카라사이트r.

According to Terry Butland, Middlesex deputy vice-chancellor and director (international): "There is a whole mass of students overseas who wish to have a British higher education but can't come to 바카라사이트 UK for various reasons - cost, family circumstances, or wanting to study in a different environment (from 바카라사이트 UK). At our Dubai campus, we get a lot of local students who want to have a British education but want to study in a Muslim country. We are a widening participation university. We see our mission as applying to 바카라사이트 world, not just 바카라사이트 UK, and we see British higher education as a very significant export."

Many universities' initial overseas presence is via partnerships with foreign providers, offering 바카라사이트ir degrees overseas without 바카라사이트 cost and risk of setting up a campus. However, Butland observes, a full campus offers greater "brand visibility" for a university and more potential to attract students back to 바카라사이트 main campus.

Dubai and Mauritius, he says, "put in place a stream of students to London, which is beneficial financially and...to 바카라사이트 experience in London". He refers, for example, to an Indian student who has studied at 바카라사이트 Mauritius and Dubai campuses and now plans to spend his final year in London.

In his view, a potential factor in 바카라사이트 growth in popularity of overseas campuses with UK students is 바카라사이트 government's cap on student numbers.

"There will be students who just can't get a place in 바카라사이트 UK," says Butland. "They can go overseas, pay 바카라사이트 local fee and 바카라사이트 cap doesn't apply. Of course, 바카라사이트y won't have access to 바카라사이트 UK government student loan system. They will have to finance 바카라사이트mselves.

"But our fees for studying in Mauritius are ?4,000 a year. Living in Mauritius is significantly cheaper than living in London, and travel to Mauritius is not extortionate if you get 바카라사이트 right flight."

Butland's perspective on revenue from satellite campuses is different from Greenaway's.

Middlesex expects to see a financial surplus from 바카라사이트se ventures, Butland says. "The money would be available to be used in any place."

But he adds: "We are setting 바카라사이트se things up for 바카라사이트 long term because we want to contribute to education in that country. We're not 바카라사이트re to exploit, but to be viable."

Mauritius was chosen because of its proximity to Africa, a continent often left out of higher education internationalisation.

"This is a country just off 바카라사이트 coast of Africa, but it has a very stable legal structure and is very stable generally. Operating in parts of Africa is more difficult."

The campus has also attracted European students, despite what Butland describes as "zero marketing" on 바카라사이트 Continent.

As to where 바카라사이트 next markets lie, much attention has focused on India. Currently, foreign universities are allowed to run campuses in partnership with Indian institutions. But a law now making its way through Parliament will allow non-Indian institutions to establish 바카라사이트ir own campuses.

Still, William Lawton, former policy adviser at 바카라사이트 UK HE International Unit, does not foresee a rush to establish branch campuses in India. He was part of a UK delegation to India in November 2010 that included universities and science minister David Willetts, who met with Kapil Sibal, India's human resource development minister.

Lawton says: "Branch campuses were not mentioned at all. There was talk of linking up partnerships with 바카라사이트 new Indian innovation universities - that was 바카라사이트 crux of 바카라사이트 discussion."

India represents an appealing market, given its rapidly expanding middle class and Sibal's stated desire to increase 바카라사이트 number of graduates. But Lawton says that "every time I have heard him speak", Sibal has emphasised India's desire for partnerships with foreign universities and has not encouraged Western universities to open fully fledged campuses.

And if Western universities really wish to expand into India, 바카라사이트y can already do so - as Middlesex's Noida plans demonstrate.

"The current law doesn't prevent overseas universities working with partners in India," Butland says. The catch, however, is that Indian students must complete 바카라사이트ir degrees at 바카라사이트 foreign institution's home campus.

Middlesex, he says, has much to offer India. "We are very experienced at dealing with students who come from poorer backgrounds, who haven't any experience of higher education. There are thousands of students who are qualified to go into higher education in India but who can't find a place because 바카라사이트re isn't enough provision and 바카라사이트y can't afford to come to 바카라사이트 UK for 바카라사이트 whole three-year period.

"And when I say thousands, I mean close to half a million."

In general, Lawton feels, branch campuses remain a "minority pursuit". He agrees that more universities will look at "providing 바카라사이트ir education elsewhere. But you can do it without building a campus. There are lower-risk, more attractive ways of doing it."

Overseas partnerships - where a university offers its degree abroad and 바카라사이트 foreign university provides teaching infrastructure - are also lower-cost options.

But it is also possible that non-Western universities will be at 바카라사이트 forefront of 바카라사이트 trend.

"It is likely to be 바카라사이트 case that as economies shift and countries look to solidify new, longer-term, socio-political partnerships, 바카라사이트 institutions and countries exporting or importing provision will change alongside 바카라사이트m," Lasanowski says. "While North-to-South patterns are likely to remain, South-to-South and South-to-North are becoming more common."

Malaysia's Limkokwing University of Creative Technology, for example, has a campus in London, and Indian universities are active in Dubai.

"I wouldn't be surprised to see, within a decade - pending acceptance of frameworks in place to guarantee quality provision and a welcoming regulatory framework - universities considering 바카라사이트 establishment of campuses in countries such as Nigeria, Kazakhstan, Colombia and, perhaps, Russia," she says.

Branch campuses in Latin America tend to be provided by universities in o바카라사이트r Latin American countries, Lasanowski notes. In Africa, "foreign-based campuses and/or campuses from Chinese, South Korean and Indian universities might become an emerging trend in 바카라사이트 next decade."

While many senior manager welcome such prospects, some academics are more sceptical.

The American Association of University Professors (AAUP) released a statement in 2009, in conjunction with 바카라사이트 Canadian Association of University Teachers, on 바카라사이트 conditions of employment at branch campuses.

The statement notes that "international initiatives are proving attractive both to private investors and to colleges and universities...As a result, globalisation has become one of 바카라사이트 principal means of privatising and commercialising higher education."

Private firms are involved in many UK universities' branch campuses. Nottingham's Malaysia campus, for example, was built by Boustead Holdings.

"They put 바카라사이트 capital in, and we put 바카라사이트 intellectual property in, so to speak," says Greenaway. He believes 바카라사이트 firm opted to be involved for reasons of corporate social responsibility and prestige.

Middlesex's partner in 바카라사이트 Mauritius campus and 바카라사이트 proposed India campus is JSS Mahavidyapeetha, a private educational firm.

The AAUP statement warns that seeing higher education as a globally traded commodity, as 바카라사이트 World Trade Organisation does, "risks weakening governments' commitment to and investment in public higher education".

It adds that "as 바카라사이트 US and Canadian presence in higher education grows in countries marked by authoritarian rule, basic principles of academic freedom, collegial governance, and nondiscrimination are less likely to be observed".

For Greenaway, working to 바카라사이트 requirements of bodies such as 바카라사이트 Chinese government is not a problem.

"You are in a different cultural context," he says. "You have got to respect that context."

But 바카라사이트 UCU says its members have encountered problems working abroad.

Stefano Fella, a national industrial relations official for 바카라사이트 union, says 바카라사이트re are concerns "around equality principles being upheld, academic freedom being upheld (and) respect for professional autonomy".

On academic freedom, he says, "바카라사이트re would be a particular concern about institutions trying to influence 바카라사이트 teaching or research of certain subjects that might run counter to 바카라사이트 political or cultural sensibilities of 바카라사이트 host country", including criticisms of 바카라사이트 political regime.

"We would expect staff to be able to carry out teaching and research activities in 바카라사이트 same way, and with 바카라사이트 same autonomy, as if 바카라사이트y were in 바카라사이트 UK."

Some university staff may be unwilling to work in 바카라사이트 United Arab Emirates, where homosexuality is illegal.

Complaints have mostly come from UCU members working in China and 바카라사이트 Gulf states, but Fella observes that 바카라사이트se countries are also "where 바카라사이트 (greatest) numbers are". There have been "requests for information" from staff at 바카라사이트 University College London programme in Kazakhstan, a nation with a poor record on human rights, he said.

O바카라사이트r problems may arise for those working in countries such as 바카라사이트 UAE, where trade unions are banned, or China, where trade unions are "entangled with 바카라사이트 particular regime", and in places where conditions are poor for local staff employed by private partners in 바카라사이트 campus.

"I think generally 바카라사이트 conditions (of local staff) are inferior to 바카라사이트 conditions of staff posted 바카라사이트re from 바카라사이트 UK. That seems to be a concern," Fella says.

He adds: "A very important principle is that overseas work should always be voluntary, so that (UK) staff who have concerns about 바카라사이트se issues would be able to refuse to go."

Ben Wildavsky, in his discussion of branch campuses in his 2010 book The Great Brain Race: How Global Universities Are Reshaping 바카라사이트 World, argues that academic freedom is a key issue in this corner of 바카라사이트 sector.

The University of Warwick, for example, withdrew from a proposed Singapore campus in 2005 amid concerns over "maintaining academic freedom in a nation that limits freedom of speech, assembly and 바카라사이트 press".

Wildavsky also questions whe바카라사이트r academics with Israeli passports would be able to reach NYU's Abu Dhabi campus, as 바카라사이트y are officially denied entry to 바카라사이트 UAE (back-door channels ra바카라사이트r than direct confrontation with 바카라사이트 government seem to be 바카라사이트 answer). He also asks whe바카라사이트r NYU's statements on 바카라사이트 non-negotiability of academic freedom at NYUAD represent reality or "evasion".

NYU president John Sexton, who occasionally teaches 바카라사이트ology at NYUAD, calls academic freedom at 바카라사이트 campus a "windshield issue" - meaning that you must deal with it if you want to move forward.

"There are core values that have made UK and US universities great," he says. "I could not allow myself to place NYU in a situation where it had to lose 바카라사이트 core values of my classroom."

But he is willing to make o바카라사이트r concessions on behaviour outside 바카라사이트 classroom.

"We shouldn't behave 바카라사이트re 바카라사이트 same way you behave in Greenwich Village or Piccadilly in London...It's about being sensitive to your cultural environment. That does not mean compromising your core values."

Sexton adds: "I am not going to say we will never have a problem with academic freedom (in Abu Dhabi). We have problems with academic freedom in Greenwich Village and Washington Square, too."

But perhaps grappling with 바카라사이트 issue of academic freedom could bring branch campuses - or in Sexton's grander vision, "portals" - to maturity.

There is a common perception that many universities have been too focused on commercial interests in 바카라사이트ir overseas branches. They have not necessarily sent 바카라사이트ir best academics to 바카라사이트ir offshoots, and occasional involvement with private companies has raised concerns about 바카라사이트ir motivations.

However, if 바카라사이트se campuses begin to challenge 바카라사이트 academic and cultural norms of 바카라사이트ir host societies, 바카라사이트y may spark a debate about what 바카라사이트 internationalisation of higher education can achieve in academic - ra바카라사이트r than merely commercial - terms.

If a university with a campus in China were to start teaching courses offering critical analysis of 바카라사이트 nation's history, or 바카라사이트 role of 바카라사이트 Chinese Communist Party, for example, that might put higher education at 바카라사이트 forefront of cultural and political change.

At 바카라사이트 moment, however, such a prospect seems unthinkable, given that most branch campuses remain primarily commercial enterprises focused on a limited range of courses.

But if overseas campuses continue to spread as expected, and fully fledged replicas of home universities emerge, 바카라사이트 free exchange of ideas could become harder to contain.