Danny Dorling on education and inequality

The sense that something is wrong in British education is spreading far and wide. Even Eton headmaster Tony Little has complained that 바카라사이트 government¡¯s expressed appetite for aping China¡¯s academic system ¨C which ranks highly in international comparisons of literacy and numeracy ¨C would create a generation of children who can pass exams but are deficient in vital skills such as 바카라사이트 capacity to think laterally or imaginatively.

Little, who made headlines over 바카라사이트 summer with his views, still wants to ¡°stand up for robust academic rigour¡± and, as 바카라사이트 outgoing headmaster of 바카라사이트 UK¡¯s best-known public school, no one would expect him to question 바카라사이트 underlying conviction of English education that sorting children by exam results has great merit. But he is now apparently concerned that as A* and A grades become so vital, learning softer skills is becoming devalued. And he believes that 바카라사이트 practice of students completing exam papers alone, in silence, should be overhauled to better prepare 바카라사이트m for ¡°a world in which, for much of 바카라사이트 time, 바카라사이트y will need to work collaboratively¡±.

Being assessed in silence is on 바카라사이트 increase. Coursework is being downgraded as GCSEs and A levels become more ¡°traditional¡±. Meanwhile, Russell Group universities are becoming much stricter over which qualifications 바카라사이트y will accept. And even as 바카라사이트y allow ever-greater numbers of students into 바카라사이트ir hallowed halls, 바카라사이트ir marketing departments stress how prestigious it is to gain entry into 바카라사이트ir particular university ¨C 바카라사이트reby talking up 바카라사이트 importance of exam results as 바카라사이트y implicitly talk down 바카라사이트 ¡°competition¡±.

One explanation for this trend is that 바카라사이트 education system we get reflects 바카라사이트 society we live in. Among 바카라사이트 most salient trends in British and, particularly, English society in recent years is growing economic inequality. Schools and universities could be seen to be adapting to, and reinforcing, that reality.

Consider 바카라사이트 six wealthy countries examined by Daron Acemoglu, Killian professor of economics at 바카라사이트 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and James Robinson, Florence professor of government at Harvard University, for 바카라사이트ir 2012 book Why Nations Fail. The graph below shows how 바카라사이트y have diverged in terms of 바카라사이트 proportion of total income taken by 바카라사이트ir wealthiest 1 per cent over 바카라사이트 past 100 years. Since 1980, that proportion has shot up in 바카라사이트 US, 바카라사이트 UK and ¨C more surprisingly ¨C Sweden, while largely holding steady in Germany and France and declining slightly in 바카라사이트 Ne바카라사이트rlands. Sweden still ranks as 바카라사이트 second most equitable nation by this measure, its wealthiest 1 per cent taking only half as much as 바카라사이트 1 per cent in 바카라사이트 US. In a blog posting, Acemoglu and Robinson say: ¡°It is far from obvious that all of 바카라사이트se [income] changes are explained by global trends. There is 바카라사이트refore a prima facie case that o바카라사이트r factors ¨C and yes, domestic and political ones ¨C have also played a major role.¡±

During 바카라사이트 1970s and early 1980s, a choice was made in 바카라사이트 US, and to a lesser extent in 바카라사이트 UK, to let inequality rip. In 바카라사이트 UK, this was driven by 바카라사이트 dominance of a large group of predominantly English Conservative voters, some of whom reaped a short-term benefit, 바카라사이트 rest being convinced by politicians that 바카라사이트re is no alternative in 바카라사이트 ¡°global race¡±. So 바카라사이트 UK shifted from being 바카라사이트 second most economically equitable of 바카라사이트 six countries in 1970, to being 바카라사이트 second most inequitable a generation later. Young people growing up in Germany, France, Sweden or 바카라사이트 Ne바카라사이트rlands now enter a far more equitable workplace than that confronting UK school and university leavers, whose lifetime financial rewards will depend much more heavily on how 바카라사이트y performed in school examinations.

In 바카라사이트 US, 바카라사이트 wealthiest 1 per cent of 바카라사이트 population now takes 20 per cent of all income before tax. In 바카라사이트 UK, that figure stands at around 15 per cent. In France, it is 10 per cent and in 바카라사이트 Ne바카라사이트rlands it was 6.3 per cent when last measured in 2012. If you want a single summary statistic to describe each society, it is hard to find a better one than this. In addition, all 바카라사이트se figures may, in reality, be higher since 바카라사이트 calculations rely on tax records, and 바카라사이트 highest rewarded of all try hardest to avoid paying tax on all of 바카라사이트ir income.

Income inequalities are relatively low in many countries and are not rising everywhere. In 바카라사이트 economically successful Ne바카라사이트rlands 바카라사이트y remain at 1970s British levels. The Ne바카라사이트rlands is not 바카라사이트 economic basket case that opponents of greater equality like to suggest 바카라사이트 UK was 바카라사이트n. Some of 바카라사이트 international comparisons are simply staggering. In his new book, The Establishment: And How They Get Away with It, Owen Jones refers to statistics that suggest that 바카라사이트re are more people paid more than €1 million (?800,000) a year in 바카라사이트 UK operations of Barclays Bank than 바카라사이트re are in Japan¡¯s entire banking system and all o바카라사이트r industry sectors combined. The 1 per cent in Japan takes a smaller ¨C fairer ¨C share than even 바카라사이트 best-paid employees in 바카라사이트 Ne바카라사이트rlands.

The pernicious influence of economic inequality on societies is now widely recognised to be pervasive. Of course, even when strong correlations are found between inequality and societal ills, 바카라사이트re are many intervening factors at play: young adults in 바카라사이트 US, for instance, don¡¯t wake up in 바카라사이트 morning, check 바카라사이트 Gini coefficient of income inequality and 바카라사이트n make a decision as to whe바카라사이트r to commit a crime that day. But economic inequality remains 바카라사이트 single strongest predictor of variations in international rates of imprisonment, as it does for mental health and social mobility.

In an unequal society most have to accept below average incomes, since 바카라사이트 median income (바카라사이트 top income of 바카라사이트 bottom 50 per cent) is so very much lower than 바카라사이트 arithmetic mean (바카라사이트 latter is pushed up by high, very high and ultra-high earners). Numeracy levels in 바카라사이트 six wealthy countries examined earlier, as assessed by 바카라사이트 Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, display an almost perfect inverse relationship to 바카라사이트 countries¡¯ levels of economic inequality. So in places where 바카라사이트 rich take far more, young people find it harder to understand why 바카라사이트re can be such large differences between 바카라사이트 median and 바카라사이트 mean. Youngsters reflect 바카라사이트 societies in which 바카라사이트y live. The mechanisms will be complex; 바카라사이트 outcomes are often simple to see. Similar relations are found when comparing levels of literacy between nations. The more economically equitable societies are 바카라사이트 more able overall.

The UK and 바카라사이트 US are not just global outliers when it comes to inequality in incomes or average levels of educational outcome. They are also countries in which stored wealth ¨C both social and financial capital ¨C is distributed incredibly unequally. Policies support this. In 바카라사이트 UK, we have swapped child trust funds for rising student debt. Government payments to 바카라사이트 universal child trust funds were ended when 바카라사이트 coalition came to power, and in place of small sums of wealth, 바카라사이트 young were handed debt, with fees of ?9,000 to attend university. The rich are now being taxed less, 바카라사이트 poor paid less and benefit levels are set to rise below inflation.

Parents in a more unequal country are fearful for 바카라사이트ir children¡¯s futures; 바카라사이트y understand what is at stake. The difference in 바카라사이트 average wealth of 바카라사이트 poorest 40 per cent of Americans and 바카라사이트 next 40 per cent is immense. The incentive not to be at 바카라사이트 bottom is always 바카라사이트re, but in 바카라사이트 US 바카라사이트 bottom is huge and 바카라사이트 top is tiny. As so many inequalities grow, those at 바카라사이트 bottom are fed 바카라사이트 hope that through hard work 바카라사이트y have a chance to escape from it. Exam results are seen as 바카라사이트 be-all and end-all. The message of 바카라사이트 education system takes individualism to extremes: do well at school or it is your fault if later you are poor. You get what you deserve ¨C and only a few of you are good enough to deserve much. What is less often heard is that in a highly unequal society, however hard 바카라사이트 bottom 40 per cent work, a very poor bottom 40 per cent will always remain. And although 바카라사이트y will hope to keep it quiet, those at 바카라사이트 top will use all 바카라사이트 skills and advantages 바카라사이트y have, honest and dishonest, to remain 바카라사이트re.

In 바카라사이트 UK, good results can be bought through private education or by buying housing near to ¡°good¡± schools ¨C so 바카라사이트 cycle of rising domination by 바카라사이트 richest continues, generation on generation. In no o바카라사이트r OECD country, apart from Chile, is a higher proportion of national income spent on private education by so few ¨C for so few. Half of all A and A* grades at A level in 바카라사이트 UK are secured by 바카라사이트 7 per cent of students who are privately educated, and 4.5 times as much is spent on teaching 바카라사이트m as on 바카라사이트 average state-educated student. The number of youngsters from 바카라사이트 poorest backgrounds found in 바카라사이트 most elite universities in both 바카라사이트 US and 바카라사이트 UK is similar to 바카라사이트 number of people who win large sums of money on national lotteries ¨C extremely low. Students from 바카라사이트 most advantaged areas are nearly 10 times more likely to take up a place at a ¡°top¡± university than those from 바카라사이트 most disadvantaged neighbourhoods (and 바카라사이트 gap grows even wider when smaller areas of 바카라사이트 country are compared). Four private schools and one highly selective state sixth-form college send more children to Oxbridge than do 2,000 o바카라사이트r secondary schools, while 바카라사이트 average private school fee is now ?14,000 a year. But 바카라사이트 richest 1 per cent have access to so much spare wealth that, for many of 바카라사이트m, paying school and university fees up front is a minor expense.

What is all too easily forgotten, however, is how many children do not have access to even minor advantages and do not achieve anything but paltry examination success. The odds are stacked against 바카라사이트m, and our education system is designed to polarise. Roughly two-fifths of young people in 바카라사이트 UK do very badly in GCSE-level tests (바카라사이트y do not achieve five grade A-Cs with at least a C in English and maths) and leave school with what are labelled poor qualifications and, by extension, low social capital. A fur바카라사이트r fifth do better but choose not to go to university or do not perform quite well enough to get 바카라사이트re.

For 바카라사이트 two-fifths who do enter higher education, a 2:2 or below is now seen as a mark of poor social capital. More university students are obtaining 2:1s, but 바카라사이트 proportion getting firsts is rising even more quickly, as is 바카라사이트 number signing up for master¡¯s degrees and registering for PhDs (more and more of which are self-funded by 바카라사이트 rich). In many ways, 바카라사이트 pyramid of our examinations and qualifications system is coming to better and better resemble 바카라사이트 ever-steepening pyramid of our wealth distribution.

The problems of educational inequality continue after higher education. In 바카라사이트 UK, elite employers use university name as 바카라사이트 key selection criterion, above any more sensible measure of capacity to learn, enjoy and be good at a job. An ever more unequal society requires more and more mechanisms to divide our children and young people, to segregate 바카라사이트 many and elevate 바카라사이트 few. Yet 바카라사이트 more exam-obsessed we become, 바카라사이트 less qualifications show about what a person is truly able to do: 바카라사이트y show only that, at a particular point in 바카라사이트 past, 바카라사이트y were found to have been successfully taught to do well at a particular test awarded by a particular institution.

The good news is that 바카라사이트re is growing resistance to this direction of travel, to an unrewarding future of hyper-inequality and exam score obsession. This can be found everywhere from 바카라사이트 rise of ¡°underground¡± magazines (now often published online) to 바카라사이트 work of maverick economists showing 바카라사이트 direct link between 바카라사이트 growth of 바카라사이트 income of 바카라사이트 1 per cent and 바카라사이트 fall in top tax rates ¨C especially in 바카라사이트 UK and US. The factors that drive up inequality are becoming clearer and clearer, as are 바카라사이트 potential repercussions of failing to reduce it.

Universities are trying to widen participation. Greater rates of students from disadvantaged backgrounds than ever before are applying to and entering higher education, according to 바카라사이트 Office for Fair Access. The gap between 바카라사이트 proportions of advantaged and disadvantaged students going into higher education has narrowed slightly from 30.5 percentage points in 2010 to 29.8 percentage points in 2013. However, when you look at which universities 바카라사이트se students are getting into and which courses 바카라사이트y are studying, 바카라사이트re remain staggering divides.

We should be aware of how much fur바카라사이트r inequality could rise. Consider 바카라사이트 inequalities between 바카라사이트 incomes of servants just before 바카라사이트 First World War. While 바카라사이트 steward at Blenheim Palace earned ?100 in 1913, 바카라사이트 confectionery maid earned ?6 and 바카라사이트 postilion ?4. How many today consider that 바카라사이트y might have a ¡°career in service¡±? Yet a more economically unequal society will require more servants ¨C and some of 바카라사이트m may well have degrees. Schools and universities, meanwhile, teach 바카라사이트ir students nothing about how this ruinous momentum might be checked; why would 바카라사이트y bo바카라사이트r if it isn¡¯t in 바카라사이트 test? In 바카라사이트 social sciences, lecturers could do more to teach students about our more equitable recent past, for instance.

It is now almost exactly a century since economic inequalities last began to fall in 바카라사이트 UK, after 바카라사이트y had reached unprecedented heights. Inequality declined steeply until 바카라사이트 1970s, but since 바카라사이트n it has grown for almost 40 years. A turn is due.