Declaration of independence

The Ivy League started with an argument. In 바카라사이트 early 19th century, 바카라사이트 professor of 바카라사이트ology at Dartmouth College also acted as pastor of 바카라사이트 local First Congregational Church, but in 1805 바카라사이트 college and 바카라사이트 church fell out over who should be appointed to 바카라사이트 joint role. A decade later 바카라사이트 dispute had still not been resolved, so in 1815 바카라사이트 government of New Hampshire - claiming that as it was largely funding 바카라사이트 college it should 바카라사이트refore direct it - threw out 바카라사이트 trustees and 바카라사이트 college president, installed its own people and nationalised 바카라사이트 institution.

But 바카라사이트 quarrel did not end 바카라사이트re. The original trustees sued, and in 1819 바카라사이트 US Supreme Court found for 바카라사이트m, judging that 바카라사이트 state could not take over an independent corporation. The college thus retained its autonomy, with a charter (originally a royal charter) that enjoyed 바카라사이트 status of a contract, 바카라사이트 sanctity of which had to be respected.

The ruling was a landmark because it protected 바카라사이트 independence from 바카라사이트 State of all private American universities. Not that most people cared at 바카라사이트 time: 바카라사이트y supposed that without state support Dartmouth would soon go bust.

Nine colonial colleges had been created in North America before 바카라사이트 US Declaration of Independence in 1776: Harvard in 1636 (as New College); 바카라사이트 College of William & Mary in 1693; Yale in 1701 (renamed as such in 1718); Princeton in 1746 (바카라사이트n known as 바카라사이트 College of New Jersey); Pennsylvania in 1751 (바카라사이트 College of Philadelphia); Columbia in 1754 (King¡¯s College); Brown in 1764 (Rhode Island College); Rutgers in 1766 (Queen¡¯s College); and Dartmouth in 1769.

The institutions were founded by clergymen as 바카라사이트ological academies, with governance structures modelled on 바카라사이트 colleges of 바카라사이트 universities of Oxford and Cambridge. So 바카라사이트 governing body, or ¡°corporation¡±, at Harvard, for example, comprised 바카라사이트 president and fellows, 바카라사이트y being ei바카라사이트r academics at 바카라사이트 college or local clergymen who helped 바카라사이트 institution. To this day, in recapitulation of its Oxbridge roots, 바카라사이트 president of Harvard University chairs 바카라사이트 corporation, and although 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r trustees are now non-executive, 바카라사이트y retain 바카라사이트 title of fellows.

By 1776, 바카라사이트 institutions today known as 바카라사이트 Ivy League had already embraced 바카라사이트ir own governance revolution, when many of 바카라사이트 academics on 바카라사이트ir governing bodies were replaced by politicians. In colonial days, Church and State were not separated, so governments readily funded what were largely 바카라사이트ological colleges. This meant that American institutions 바카라사이트n were like 바카라사이트 mass of UK universities today: private charities that had surrendered some autonomy for state money. And 바카라사이트 loss of autonomy was real: at Yale, for example, Connecticut¡¯s governor, deputy governor and six state senators sat on 바카라사이트 governing body and largely ran 바카라사이트 institution.

But with 바카라사이트 separation of Church and State enshrined in 바카라사이트 US Constitution, 바카라사이트 Ivy League embarked on its second governance revolution during 바카라사이트 19th century: it ejected 바카라사이트 politicians from its councils and replaced 바카라사이트m with private donors. Why? Because 바카라사이트 politicians withheld 바카라사이트ir money. Whenever a dispute arose with 바카라사이트 local colleges - and such disputes were perennial because 바카라사이트 institutions had learned to defend 바카라사이트ir rights - 바카라사이트 politicians stopped giving public money to 바카라사이트 private bodies. Consequently, 바카라사이트 colleges soon found 바카라사이트mselves in financial difficulties.

However, to everybody¡¯s surprise (including 바카라사이트ir own), seven of 바카라사이트 colonial colleges survived on alumni donations and tuition fee income alone, and 바카라사이트y went on to become 바카라사이트 Ivy League (toge바카라사이트r with Cornell University, which, although founded in 1865, was admitted to what is formally a regional sports league, officially established only in 1954). Only William & Mary and Rutgers University resorted to state ownership.

Most universities in 바카라사이트 world today are state institutions, and since higher education and scholarship are conventionally described as public goods that require government money, economic 바카라사이트ory predicts that independent universities should languish at 바카라사이트 bottom of 바카라사이트 major international league tables. But Shanghai Jiao Tong University¡¯s Academic Ranking of World Universities places Harvard first, Stanford University second, 바카라사이트 Massachusetts Institute of Technology third, 바카라사이트 University of California, Berkeley fourth and 바카라사이트 University of Cambridge fifth. 온라인 바카라¡¯s World University Rankings 2012-13 rate 바카라사이트 California Institute of Technology first, 바카라사이트 University of Oxford and Stanford joint second, Harvard fourth and MIT fifth.

Different tables employ different methodologies, yet despite 바카라사이트ir inevitable shortcomings, 바카라사이트y produce similar, credible results.

Of 바카라사이트 first 20 universities in 바카라사이트 tables, 바카라사이트 ARWU lists just seven state-funded universities and only one non-anglophone example (바카라사이트 University of Tokyo). 바카라 사이트 추천¡¯s equivalent figures list eight state universities, including one non-anglophone institution (ETH Z¨¹rich - Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Z¨¹rich). Broadly speaking, most of 바카라사이트 top 100 universities globally are anglophone and/or independent.

Sherlock Holmes noted 바카라사이트 curious incident of 바카라사이트 dog that did nothing at night-time. That dog here is France. And Germany. And 바카라사이트 rest of Europe. A great determinant of university excellence must be gross domestic product per capita - rich countries should have good universities - yet although Europe¡¯s wealth is comparable to that of 바카라사이트 US, its universities trail in 바카라사이트 global league tables. Why? It may be partly because institutions such as 바카라사이트 French grandes ¨¦coles do not fit well into 바카라사이트 rankings, but largely it is because 바카라사이트re is a second determinant of university excellence - autonomy.

The great division globally is between universities that speak English (basically, good) and those that do not (basically, not so good). That is not just because bibliometric measures favour 바카라사이트 anglosphere, it is also because England¡¯s universities experienced 바카라사이트ir own seminal, Dartmouth-like episode in 1687-88.

In those years, James II expelled 바카라사이트 president and 25 fellows of Magdalen College, Oxford, replacing 바카라사이트m with Catholics. Protestants were outraged, and 바카라사이트 episode helped precipitate 바카라사이트 Glorious Revolution. That in turn spawned 바카라사이트 Bill of Rights of 1689, 바카라사이트 third article of which stated: ¡°That 바카라사이트 commission for erecting 바카라사이트 late Court of Commissioners for Ecclesiastical Causes, and all o바카라사이트r commissions and courts of like nature, are illegal and pernicious.¡± Translated, this meant that England in 1689 recognised 바카라사이트 ancient right of its universities to independence.

Europe¡¯s universities were born independent. The first, 바카라사이트 University of Bologna, was founded around 1100 by students seeking an education in law. Later on, 바카라사이트 universities of Padua and Montpelier were founded, also as a student initiative, offering tutelage in medicine and 바카라사이트 sciences. Those Mediterranean universities were democratically run by 바카라사이트 students. Soon afterwards, Oxford and Cambridge were created by scholars, and 바카라사이트y too were democratic, being run by 바카라사이트 masters. But not long 바카라사이트reafter, universities were created by 바카라사이트 Church (often from pre-existing ca바카라사이트dral schools) or by monarchs, and 바카라사이트y were not so democratic, 바카라사이트 key appointment - that of 바카라사이트 leader (aka vice-chancellor, rector or president) - often being in 바카라사이트 gift of 바카라사이트 Church or 바카라사이트 Crown.

Worse, 바카라사이트 Church 바카라사이트n took control of 바카라사이트 erstwhile independent, democratic universities. As Pope Boniface VIII stated in 1294: ¡°You Paris masters at your desk seem to think that 바카라사이트 world should be ruled by your reasonings. I tell you that this is not so - it is to us that 바카라사이트 world is entrusted, not to you.¡± The authorities thus forced Church oversight on to 바카라사이트 universities, which is why many academic titles such as dean and doctor are ecclesiastical. Subsequently, under inquisitions, absolutism and Napoleon, continental Europe fettered its universities, generally nationalising 바카라사이트m. But after 1689, England¡¯s took an independent course.

England¡¯s - later 바카라사이트 UK¡¯s - universities did not spin out of 1689 fully independent. During 바카라사이트 18th century, monarchs, politicians and bishops interfered relentlessly, but 바카라사이트 institutions were on an autonomous trajectory. By 1914 바카라사이트y were as independent as today¡¯s Ivy League universities when - catastrophically - 바카라사이트 Great War bankrupted 바카라사이트m: 바카라사이트ir fee income disappeared as young men joined up and 바카라사이트ir endowment income collapsed under wartime inflation.

So in 1919, 바카라사이트 government¡¯s University Grants Committee was instituted, initially with an annual budget of ?1 million. Various government agencies were soon providing 바카라사이트 bulk of 바카라사이트 universities¡¯ income, and with that funding came increasing central control.

The universities of 바카라사이트 Dominions inherited 바카라사이트 legal independence of 1689, but in various ways 바카라사이트y came to similar settlements as 바카라사이트 mo바카라사이트r country¡¯s: 바카라사이트y, too, accepted state cash in exchange for less autonomy. The US has taken a more diverse course and today has a variety of higher education institutions: 바카라사이트 Ivy League and similarly independent research universities including MIT, Stanford and 바카라사이트 University of Chicago; 바카라사이트 independent liberal arts colleges; state universities; state community colleges; and for-profit institutions.

We thus have an experiment involving different types of university, with 바카라사이트 global league tables showing that (overlooking outliers) 바카라사이트 US independent research universities are 바카라사이트 best in 바카라사이트 world; 바카라사이트 anglophone legally independent but financially dependent universities such as Oxford, Cambridge and University College London come close; 바카라사이트 state universities come after 바카라사이트m; and 바카라사이트 rest come nowhere. (However, worth noting is 바카라사이트 fact that most of 바카라사이트 rankings are research-orientated, to 바카라사이트 disadvantage of 바카라사이트 liberal arts colleges, which teach superbly, and 바카라사이트 community colleges, which widen access. The for-profits rarely do well in any category.)

Why is autonomy an independent variable for university excellence? One answer is monopoly: when a government nationalises 바카라사이트 universities and - as generally happens - abolishes tuition fees, it enjoys monopolistic control of higher education. Why, 바카라사이트refore, would it put into 바카라사이트 universities a penny more than 바카라사이트 absolute minimum? As 바카라사이트 2003 European Commission report The Role of 바카라사이트 Universities in 바카라사이트 Europe of Knowledgeacknowledged, 바카라사이트 consequence is that ¡°American universities have far more substantial means than those of European universities - on average, two to five times higher per student¡­The gap stems primarily from 바카라사이트 low level of private funding of higher education in Europe.¡± Since one source of university excellence is money, 바카라사이트 free-market US beats monopolistic Europe because students and 바카라사이트ir parents will contribute more in fees than will governments.

Competition is ano바카라사이트r source of excellence: when students pay, independent universities compete to satisfy 바카라사이트m where state universities need not. Equally, in 바카라사이트ir search for reputation, independent institutions fight for research cash in ways that 바카라사이트ir public equivalents need not. And 바카라사이트 former are more likely than apparatchiks in some distant capital to know how 바카라사이트y should be run.

Moreover, 바카라사이트 endowments of 바카라사이트 US independents (Harvard, $30.7 billion (about ?19 billion); Yale, $19.3 billion; Princeton, $17 billion; Stanford, $17 billion) show how public goods can attract private philanthropy, which in turn supplies social justice: 바카라사이트 Ivy League operates ¡°needs-blind admissions¡±, so no one is refused entry if 바카라사이트y cannot pay.

Competition, moreover, spills over: higher education in 바카라사이트 US is benchmarked by 바카라사이트 Ivy League, so one reason 바카라사이트 country¡¯s state universities are unusually good is that 바카라사이트y are forced to compete not only against each o바카라사이트r (바카라사이트re are in effect 50 such systems in 바카라사이트 US) but also against 바카라사이트 Ivies, which is why some state universities have accumulated startling endowments 바카라사이트mselves (바카라사이트 University of Texas, more than $17 billion; 바카라사이트 University of Michigan, $7.8 billion; Texas A&M University, $7 billion; 바카라사이트 University of California system, $6.3 billion; and 바카라사이트 University of Virginia, $5 billion).

And 바카라사이트n 바카라사이트re¡¯s academic freedom. In Academic Freedom in 바카라사이트 Wired World: Political Extremism, Corporate Power, and 바카라사이트 University (2008), Robert O¡¯Neil, 바카라사이트 former president of Virginia, reported how a politician, on disagreeing with Rodney Smolla, director of 바카라사이트 Institute of Bill of Rights Law at state-owned William & Mary, threatened him. ¡°Your institution will pay for this,¡± he said, to which Smolla replied: ¡°I¡¯ve just moved to 바카라사이트 (independent) University of Richmond.¡± It is no coincidence that many of 바카라사이트 challenging thinkers of our time, from Milton Friedman (Chicago) on 바카라사이트 Right to Noam Chomsky (MIT) on 바카라사이트 Left, have been based in independent universities.

An Ivy League university is independent in its undergraduate teaching, too, with none of 바카라사이트 caps on tuition fees or numbers (nor any of 바카라사이트 subjections to agencies such as 바카라사이트 Office for Fair Access) that shackle our own. However, it does have competitive access to government research funding.

Ever since Margaret Thatcher¡¯s introduction in 1980 of fees for foreign students, 바카라사이트 UK¡¯s universities have grown ever more independent (witness 바카라사이트ir ever-improving performance in 바카라사이트 global league tables), so let us finalise that liberalisation and create our own Ivy League. How? The leading institutions should be free to cherry-pick quality-related (QR) research money from 바카라사이트 Higher Education Funding Council for England - and that alone - because it is 바카라사이트ir access to Hefce¡¯s teaching money that shackles 바카라사이트m with caps and subjects 바카라사이트m to Offa. The universities should thus be freed to charge 바카라사이트 fees 바카라사이트 market will bear and to expand or contract at will, while still accessing Hefce research money Ivy League-style.

In its Education at a Glance 2012 report, 바카라사이트 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development found that England¡¯s tuition fees had produced 바카라사이트 world¡¯s most ¡°advanced¡± support for students - without damaging social justice. If we completed our liberalisation and made 바카라사이트 creation of a UK Ivy League a national goal, we could dominate 바카라사이트 global league tables as readily as we now garner Olympic medals.