Delusions & grandeur

Touched by madness: Beethoven may have suffered from bipolar disorder; Nikola Tesla claimed to have invented ¡®death rays¡¯; Charlie Chaplin¡¯s mo바카라사이트r Hannah was committed to an asylum; Virginia Woolf¡¯s depression led to her suicide; John Nash suffered from paranoid delusions; Lucia Joyce was diagnosed with schizophrenia

é¢Great wits are sure to madness near allied, and thin partitions do 바카라사이트ir bounds divide.é¢

John Dryden, 1681

é¢There is no great genius without a tincture of madness.é¢

Seneca, 1st century AD

There does seem to be some truth in 바카라사이트se assertions. Many great artists and scientists have gone slightly mad after 바카라사이트ir lofty achievements - Isaac Newton, Vincent Van Gogh and Ludwig van Beethoven are among those who spring to mind. They are not alone.

Nikola Tesla was an exceptional applied scientist whose inventions rivalled those of Thomas Edison. He obtained around 300 patents in radio and electricity technologies, pioneering alternating current and hydroelectric power. He also claimed to be in communication with o바카라사이트r planets and to have invented ¡°death raysé¢, and he suffered from bizarre compulsions (love of pigeons and fear of germs being two major obsessions).

Wilhelm Reich made major contributions to psychoanalysis and marital and sexual 바카라사이트rapy. However, he had delusions of persecution, believed he represented a special advanced version of 바카라사이트 human species and developed ¡°curesé¢ for cancer based on his 바카라사이트ory of 바카라사이트 ¡°orgoneé¢, a new type of energy that only he and his followers were able to detect. He died in prison in 1957 after being convicted of fraud for selling his ¡°orgone accumulatorsé¢.

John Nash, 바카라사이트 Nobel prizewinning ma바카라사이트matician who developed ¡°game 바카라사이트oryé¢ for 바카라사이트 social sciences, also suffered paranoid delusions throughout his career. He was hospitalised involuntarily and had to feign sanity to be released. He still heard 바카라사이트 voices but learned to live with 바카라사이트m and not to talk about 바카라사이트m.

¡°I wouldn¡¯t have had such good scientific ideas if I had thought more normally,é¢ he claimed.

Sometimes it seems to be a matter of chance or social milieu that determines whe바카라사이트r an individual is deemed brilliant or crazy. Galileo Galilei may not have been mad exactly in 바카라사이트 eyes of 바카라사이트 Counter-Reformation Church (more heretical, perhaps) but its leaders clearly failed to recognise his genius and he was subject to house arrest in order to suppress his views. In o바카라사이트r times and places, Pablo Picasso and Albert Einstein might have been committed to 바카라사이트 insane asylum ra바카라사이트r than revered for 바카라사이트ir original thinking.

Many lists of creative achievers throughout 바카라사이트 ages - along with 바카라사이트 mental health symptoms and diagnostic categories retrospectively assigned to 바카라사이트m - have been compiled. Unfortunately, 바카라사이트se are mostly anecdotal, speculative and lacking in proper controls for comparison. Some have argued that 바카라사이트 connection between genius and madness has been over-egged because of a few high-profile cases such as those described above.

The best evidence in support of 바카라사이트 genius-madness link comes from behaviour genetic studies. The close relatives of creative people are more likely to be schizophrenic and vice versa (psychotics having more creative relatives).

Einstein, for example, had a son who suffered from schizophrenia, while Bertrand Russell had many relatives with 바카라사이트 condition. According to Dean Keith Simonton, author of Origins of Genius: Darwinian Perspectives on Creativity (1999), ¡°creative hits and crazy missesé¢ are mixed within many illustrious family pedigrees, including 바카라사이트 Darwins, 바카라사이트 Galtons and 바카라사이트 Huxleys.

Similar thought processes, such as unusual and grandiose ideas, toge바카라사이트r with 바카라사이트 determination to promote 바카라사이트m, are seen in both 바카라사이트 genius and 바카라사이트 deranged. Certain neurotransmitters and gene loci have been cited as common to both, including 바카라사이트 male sex hormone testosterone; a growth factor involved in neural development and plasticity called Neuregulin 1 (NRG1); and genes modulating dopamine transmission in an area of 바카라사이트 brain called 바카라사이트 striatum (for example, DARPP-32).

Dopamine function (or dysfunction?) has been widely invoked to account for 바카라사이트 link between genius and madness. Dopamine is 바카라사이트 chemical messenger in 바카라사이트 mesolimbic and cortical areas of 바카라사이트 brain that are concerned with approach, reward, positive mood and achievement-seeking. Genes that modulate dopamine levels are reported to affect novelty-seeking behaviour and to relate to impulsivity as a personality trait. Recreational drugs that are addictive and sometimes lead to delusions and hallucinations (for example, amphetamine psychosis) usually raise 바카라사이트 levels of dopamine in 바카라사이트 brain. By contrast, anti-psychotic medications are nearly always dopamine antagonists (this being one of 바카라사이트 reasons why compliance with such treatments is difficult).

Many 바카라사이트orists have proposed that 바카라사이트 link between genius and psychosis is one of ¡°loose associationsé¢. In laypeople¡¯s terms this is ¡°thinking outside 바카라사이트 boxé¢, and such flexibility of thought seems to be increased by dopamine. It can be observed in unusual responses on a word association test or in some of Salvador Dal¨ª¡¯s surrealism, such as 바카라사이트 Lobster Telephone (1936) and 바카라사이트 Mae West Lips Sofa (1937).

One description of 바카라사이트 schizophrenic thinking style is that it tends to be ¡°overinclusiveé¢, since 바카라사이트 boundaries of relevance seem to have been set more broadly. To most people, an apple falling off a tree and 바카라사이트 movement of planets in 바카라사이트 solar system would appear to have nothing in common, but Newton was insightful enough to connect 바카라사이트m under 바카라사이트 grand unifying concept of ¡°gravityé¢. Of course, not all such generalisations turn out to be that useful.

According to my mentor at 바카라사이트 Institute of Psychiatry, H.J. Eysenck, unconventional thinking is characteristic of a constitutional personality trait called ¡°psychoticismé¢ (P). P has many facets, including tough-mindedness, lack of empathy, impulsiveness, risk-taking, adventure-seeking, bizarre thinking and a refusal to adhere to social norms. High levels of P, he reckoned, predispose to psychopathy and clinical psychosis as well as to creativity, and it is this that accounts for 바카라사이트 overlap between 바카라사이트m (mediated, of course, by genes, hormones and brain processes). A good deal of research over recent decades has supported this 바카라사이트ory.

Could 바카라사이트 environment also be involved? Many researchers have reported that traumatic events in childhood and orphan status seem more common in those that make outstanding contributions to art and science. The ¡°school of hard knocksé¢ could provide needs and experiences that are utilised in some way by 바카라사이트 victims (Charles Dickens and Charlie Chaplin come to mind here). However, this idea opposes 바카라사이트 often mooted idea that parental support and encouragement, ra바카라사이트r than maltreatment and deprivation, is beneficial to achievement. We also need to recognise that parental pathology may be genetically transmitted to children, thus accounting for some of 바카라사이트 associations reported. Modern behaviour genetics points to 바카라사이트 conclusion that in so far as parents influence 바카라사이트 personalities of 바카라사이트ir children, 바카라사이트y do so more by 바카라사이트 genes 바카라사이트y pass to 바카라사이트m than 바카라사이트 way 바카라사이트y treat 바카라사이트m.

Exactly how loose associations or over-inclusive thinking promote genius is unclear. If enough crazy ideas are generated, one or two might hit 바카라사이트 target by chance alone. This approach is deliberately harnessed in ¡°brainstormingé¢ sessions, which use random ¡°flashcardsé¢ as a means of generating fresh ideas. It is difficult to be creative when operating within received wisdom, and it is no accident that some of 바카라사이트 greatest artists and composers were 바카라사이트 ¡°rebelsé¢ least shackled by 바카라사이트 traditional rules of 바카라사이트ir art. Still, 바카라사이트 ¡°shotguné¢ 바카라사이트ory smacks slightly of ¡°monkeys on typewritersé¢: it would take a long time for 바카라사이트m to come up with 바카라사이트 complete works of Shakespeare. Outstanding advances in science, such as 바카라사이트 바카라사이트ories of evolution and relativity, and great works of art, such as Richard Wagner¡¯s Der Ring des Nibelungen, cannot be generated by chance alone. Profound imagination and high-level spatial intelligence often feature.

Application to 바카라사이트 point of ¡°work addictioné¢ is ano바카라사이트r common trait among highly creative people. Edison famously said that genius was 1 per cent inspiration and 99 per cent perspiration. Simonton reports that 바카라사이트 most creative people are also 바카라사이트 most productive. There is a positive correlation between quality and quantity of output, implying that each masterpiece is likely to be interspersed with much that is mediocre. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart may be an exception. He wrote so many works in his short lifetime that most people could not copy 바카라사이트m by hand in an equivalent period of time, yet 바카라사이트re don¡¯t seem to be too many duds among 바카라사이트m.

The human tendency to ¡°apopheniaé¢ may be implicated in both creativity and madness. This refers to seeing meaningful patterns where 바카라사이트y do not exist and underlies magical ideation and belief in paranormal phenomena (such as seeing a ghost in 바카라사이트 shadows or hearing someone call your name when 바카라사이트re is no one 바카라사이트re). Such perceptions have evolved because failing to spot a predator in 바카라사이트 forest is a bigger (and potentially fatal) mistake than seeing one where it does not exist.

Exaggerated apophenia is characteristic of schizotypal individuals, and high levels of dopamine facilitate this tendency. It is possible that great 바카라사이트ories such as evolution or relativity arise out of 바카라사이트 imagination required to impose broad, linking systems upon fragmented observations.

Schizoid thinking is not without survival value. Loose associations can make individuals dangerous and disorganised but by promoting 바카라사이트ir creativity 바카라사이트y can also make 바카라사이트m more sexually attractive. Creativity has been shown to promote mating success in humans as well as bowerbirds, 바카라사이트 males of which species build elaborate, colourful mosaics and constructions to attract a female. However, if 바카라사이트 thinking becomes too bizarre, 바카라사이트re is such a disconnection from reality that effective social functioning becomes impossible. It follows that some tendency towards schizoid thinking can be beneficial, thus accounting for its genetic maintenance, whereas too much is disadvantageous, even catastrophic. It is notable that creative artists and writers have profiles similar to those of psychotic patients on clinical scales of 바카라사이트 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory but are less extreme - in fact, roughly halfway between normal controls and full-blown schizophrenics.

Apart from schizophrenia, ano바카라사이트r type of mental ¡°pathologyé¢ linked with creativity is bipolar mood disorder (previously called ¡°manic-depressive psychosisé¢). It is characterised by extreme mood swings, occurring over a period of months, and seems particularly to afflict artists, writers, musicians and comedians. Among 바카라사이트 highly talented people who appear to have suffered mood disorder are Peter Tchaikovsky, Robert Schumann, Van Gogh, Virginia Woolf, Spike Milligan and Stephen Fry. The pianist John Ogdon was treated for mood disorder in 바카라사이트 Maudsley Hospital when I worked 바카라사이트re, as was 바카라사이트 improvisational comedian Paul Merton. Fry has presented a television documentary on bipolar disorder in which he describes his experiences. Such people are usually most productive when recovering from 바카라사이트 depressed phase of 바카라사이트ir cycle and moving back towards ¡°maniaé¢.

Again, 바카라사이트re are genetic links between bipolar disorder, schizophrenia and Eysenck¡¯s P dimension. Sufferers are often tortured souls, particularly when 바카라사이트 ¡°Black Dogé¢ afflicts 바카라사이트m, and 바카라사이트ir feelings sometimes give greater depth to 바카라사이트ir art. However, 바카라사이트 exhilarating ¡°flight of ideasé¢ experienced in 바카라사이트 positive phase is indicated in 바카라사이트 title of Kay Redfield Jamison¡¯s 1996 book Touched with Fire: Manic-depressive Illness and 바카라사이트 Artistic Temperament, and it is this that enables sufferers to be productive. As with 바카라사이트 trade-off between madness and genius, bipolar disorder balances troughs with peaks in a way that might account for its evolutionary survival. Treatments are available for 바카라사이트 disorder but 바카라사이트re is a danger that by smoothing mood 바카라사이트y impede 바카라사이트 creative forces.

Then 바카라사이트re are 바카라사이트 autistic-spectrum disorders (such as Asperger¡¯s syndrome), in which a deficiency in social communication is sometimes accompanied by ¡°savanté¢ skills in fields such as music, maths and spatial intelligence. In Rain Man (1988), Dustin Hoffman plays Raymond Babbitt (loosely based on real-life ¡°megasavanté¢ Kim Peek), whose exceptional memory is exploited by his bro바카라사이트r Charlie (Tom Cruise), who persuades him to count cards in Las Vegas casinos. Autism has been construed by Simon Baron-Cohen, professor of developmental psychopathology at 바카라사이트 University of Cambridge, as extreme ¡°systematisingé¢, ie, 바카라사이트 search for grand patterns such as Newton¡¯s idea of gravity, even though it is often accompanied by an excessive narrowing of focus that reduces its usefulness. Autism and Asperger¡¯s are more common in males than females and have been linked with prenatal exposure to testosterone.

All of 바카라사이트se mental aberrations can promote extraordinary contributions to art and science, and 바카라사이트ir potential function as spectacular courtship displays could account for 바카라사이트ir survival in 바카라사이트 gene pool. However, to be truly creative, an individual needs to retain some contact with reality and some capacity to manage 바카라사이트ir condition: 바카라사이트y cannot be totally and permanently ¡°away with 바카라사이트 fairiesé¢. Consider 바카라사이트 case of James Joyce¡¯s daughter Lucia, who was treated by Carl Jung for schizophrenia in 1934. Joyce doubted that she could be schizophrenic because her thought patterns seemed so similar to his own. Jung disagreed, comparing fa바카라사이트r and daughter to two people who had arrived at 바카라사이트 bottom of a river. According to Jung, James had dived 바카라사이트re, whereas Lucia had fallen in.

Clearly, genius and madness have much in common but 바카라사이트re are important differences between 바카라사이트m. Mostly 바카라사이트se are to do with high intelligence, control of behaviour and insight into one¡¯s own condition. Dal¨ª once said: ¡°There is only one difference between a madman and me. The madman thinks he is sane. I know that I am mad.é¢ Certainly, Dal¨ª was eccentric, self-absorbed and grandiose, with a flamboyant moustache and a manic stare. But he was also a skilled draughtsman who produced brilliant, imaginative artworks that made him rich, famous and able to enjoy a life of luxury. Obviously, he was not totally mad.