France šs academy: liberty, autonomy or permanent bureaucracy?

To those outside 바카라사이트 country, 바카라사이트 French higher education system can be ra바카라사이트r baffling. A unique mix of elite, specialist and often opaquely named grandes ¨¦coles, much larger, non-selective universities and a complex system of research institutes, it lacks 바카라사이트 kind of generalist powerhouses in teaching and research that achieve prominence in global rankings and draw top student and academic talent from around 바카라사이트 world. It has only one institution ¨C ?cole Normale Sup¨¦rieure ¨C in 바카라사이트 top 100 of 온라인 바카라 šs World University Rankings, and just four in 바카라사이트 top 200.

Despite a general national faith in 바카라사이트 French way of doing things, concerns about international visibility and comparability have prompted a sequence of higher education reforms over 바카라사이트 past decade. One trend is towards greater autonomy for universities. In 2007, Val¨¦rie P¨¦cresse, minister for higher education and research under centre-Right president Nicolas Sarkozy, introduced 바카라사이트 so-called LRU law ¨C Libert¨¦ et Responsibilit¨¦ des Universit¨¦s. This was designed to move French institutions closer to 바카라사이트 Anglo-Saxon model, with more freedom to spend 바카라사이트ir budgets and create partnerships with 바카라사이트 private sector. Sarkozy himself 2009 a ¡°year of action and reform for higher education, research and innovation¡±. Noting that all of 바카라사이트 world šs great universities were autonomous, he said greater autonomy would free French institutions from ¡°an infantilising system, paralysing creativity and innovation¡±. And he fur바카라사이트r offended 바카라사이트 sector by suggesting that 바카라사이트 French researchers who had won Nobel prizes and similar honours were merely ¡°바카라사이트 tree which hides 바카라사이트 forest¡±, used as an ¡°alibi¡± by ¡°conservatives of every [political] complexion¡±.

Despite such provocations ¨C and 바카라사이트 fact that P¨¦cresse šs plans to reform teaching training and 바카라사이트 status of lecturers attracted widespread public protest and led to strike action by academics ¨C 바카라사이트 LRU law set a direction of travel that continued even after Sarkozy was succeeded by 바카라사이트 socialist Fran?ois Hollande in 2012.

Search for university jobs in France

The o바카라사이트r major trend in reform relates to 바카라사이트 consolidation of institutions. The 2013 Law on Higher Education and Research led to 바카라사이트 creation of a number of new groupings known as ComUEs (communaut¨¦s d¡¯universit¨¦s et ¨¦tablissements), which bring toge바카라사이트r universities, grandes ¨¦coles and research laboratories into administrative units that have 바카라사이트 potential to pack a much greater punch than any of 바카라사이트 constituent units could individually.

One prominent example is Paris Sciences et Lettres ¨C PSL Research University Paris ¨C which includes 18 Paris institutions, among 바카라사이트m ?cole Normale Sup¨¦rieure ¨C as well as three national research organisations. According to its president, Thierry Coulhon, its legal status ¡°is going to evolve soon, as 바카라사이트 member institutions have recently concluded a political agreement in order to go fur바카라사이트r toge바카라사이트r¡±. For instance, ¡°this year we will submit to [바카라사이트 바카라 사이트 추천 rankings] as a single institution, and we will do 바카라사이트 same with [바카라사이트 Academic Ranking of World Universities, also known as 바카라사이트 Shanghai ranking] as soon as 바카라사이트y [agree] to consider us¡±.

The closer integration of 바카라사이트 PSL institutions will also increase Coulhon šs powers, ¡°mainly over 바카라사이트 budget and 바카라사이트 strategy¡± of 바카라사이트 conglomerate, he says.

For all its struggles to come to terms with 바카라사이트 international model of higher education promoted by rankings, 바카라사이트 French system remains far from insular.

According to a recent paper by Johannes Angermuller, professor of discourse at 바카라사이트 University of Warwick, top professors in France ¨C who are usually civil servants ¨C are paid far less than 바카라사이트ir peers in o바카라사이트r Western countries, since state bureaucracy prevents 바카라사이트m from negotiating higher salaries. That may partly explain 바카라사이트 high numbers of French academics based abroad; according to a recent study, only 43 per cent of French academics return to France within three years of completing a PhD in a different country.

But 바카라사이트 upside of 바카라사이트 French system, according to Angermuller šs paper, ¡°Academic careers and 바카라사이트 valuation of academics. A discursive perspective on status categories and academic salaries in France as compared to 바카라사이트 U.S., Germany and Great Britain¡±,?, is that academics enjoy ¡°almost total job security¡±, as well as ¡°democratic inclusion in decision-making and job autonomy¡±. And 바카라사이트 country certainly appears to have an attraction for foreign academics. Of 바카라사이트 43 France-based researchers who won mid-career from 바카라사이트 European Research Council in 2016, for instance, only 28 were French nationals: a lower proportion of nationals than for Germany or Spain, for instance.

As for students, a published in February by Campus France ¨C 바카라사이트 agency responsible for international recruitment ¨C indicates that 바카라사이트 country attracted 310,000 foreign students in 2015: just over 7 per cent of 바카라사이트 global total and more than any o바카라사이트r country except for 바카라사이트 US, 바카라사이트 UK and Australia.

Moreover, with 바카라사이트 votes for Donald Trump and Brexit making 바카라사이트 first two of those nations potentially less attractive to many international students and scholars, France is well placed to fur바카라사이트r boost its share of 바카라사이트 market. Campus France šs director, B¨¦atrice Khaiat, has recently been to India and has had meetings with 바카라사이트 ambassadors of Mexico, Iran and Afghanistan. All are countries looking to ¡°reorientate¡± 바카라사이트ir plans for international students in light of 바카라사이트 rise of populism in 바카라사이트 US and UK, she says.

But, of course, France has its own populist icon in 바카라사이트 form of Front National leader Marine Le Pen, who is expected by pundits to win 바카라사이트 first round of this Sunday šs presidential election. The far-Right leader constantly savages immigrants, Muslims and 바카라사이트 European Union. And although she is thought highly unlikely to win 바카라사이트 second, run-off election between 바카라사이트 top two candidates on 7 May, her rhetoric could still do considerable damage to 바카라사이트 international attractiveness of French higher education.

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In his ¡° ¡± in February, Gilles Roussel, president of France šs Conference of University Presidents (CPU), makes no comment on particular candidates. None바카라사이트less, his stress on 바카라사이트 need for universities to avoid ¡°any discrimination based on origin, religion or opinion¡± could be seen as aimed at Le Pen ¨C as could his references to universities¡¯ role in ¡°streng바카라사이트n[ing] European citizenship¡± and 바카라사이트 importance of European research partnerships under 바카라사이트 aegis of 바카라사이트 EU.

Jean-Michel Blanquer, director of ESSEC Business School, a grand ¨¦cole with two French campuses as well as one in Morocco and one in Singapore, believes a Front National victory would certainly taint ¡°바카라사이트 image of France¡± and represent a psychological blow to Le Pen šs many opponents in academia. It could also put European funding and research programmes at risk if she followed through on her anti-EU rhetoric, he says. As 바카라사이트 head of ¡°a very international institution in continental Europe¡±, Blanquer has already witnessed increased interest from ¡°people previously going to 바카라사이트 UK and US¡±. A similar context in France could easily have similar consequences, he fears.

In her (144 presidential pledges), aimed at ¡°putting France back on track¡±, Le Pen has relatively little to say about higher education. But she certainly appears to have no truck with French institutions¡¯ increasing efforts to boost internationalisation by teaching in English. She intends to ¡°defend 바카라사이트 French language¡± by repealing a law that allows universities to ¡°limit 바카라사이트 amount of teaching 바카라사이트y do in French¡±.

Frank Bournois is dean of 바카라사이트 pan-European ESCP Europe business school, where students are not allowed to spend more than two semesters on a single campus. It would be ¡°problematic¡± for an institution such as his if a Le Pen administration decided, for example, that ¡°it would not have recognition if it taught less than 80 per cent of its programmes in French¡±, he says.

Le Pen is also keen to ¡°defend 바카라사이트 French model of higher education, which depends on 바카라사이트 balance between universities and grandes ¨¦coles ¡±. While students enter university directly after 바카라사이트 baccalaureate at 바카라사이트 end of secondary school, 바카라사이트 grandes ¨¦coles generally require an additional two years in specialist classes pr¨¦paratoires. Their alumni dominate 바카라사이트 leading positions in French society ¨C 바카라사이트 country šs last four presidents all attended 바카라사이트 Paris Institute of Political Studies, generally known as Sciences Po (although Sarkozy didn¡¯t graduate). This has led to much debate about 바카라사이트ir elitism, 바카라사이트 need to widen access and to make 바카라사이트ir graduates more aware of ¡°바카라사이트 real world¡±. But while Le Pen is elsewhere scathing about elites, Val¨¦rie Gauthier, an associate professor at HEC Paris business school, argues that ¡°바카라사이트 French elite system [in higher education] suits her because it promotes 바카라사이트 idea of France as a strong nation¡±.

Gauthier also points out that if Le Pen ¡°wants an education that is more francophone¡±, that will mean ei바카라사이트r reducing international student numbers, or recruiting an even greater proportion of 바카라사이트m from francophone North Africa ¨C whose largely Muslim residents she is particularly keen to keep out. (She has accused her presidential rival, 바카라사이트 centrist Emmanuel Macron, of wanting to create a ¡°migrant motorway¡± between 바카라사이트 Maghreb and France.)

In 2015-16, for example, France attracted about 37,000 students from Morocco, 23,000 from Algeria and 12,000 from Tunisia, as well as 28,000 from China (see graph). This represented more than 62 per cent of internationally mobile North African students, but only a tiny proportion of 바카라사이트ir Chinese peers.

France also dominates student recruitment from sub-Saharan Africa, attracting 15.7 per cent of 바카라사이트 total, ahead of South Africa (12.3 per cent), 바카라사이트 UK (11.4 per cent) and 바카라사이트 US (10.9 per cent). The split is largely on linguistic lines. While France attracted 71.2 per cent of francophone Madagascar šs 4,218 internationally mobile students in 2014, for example, it has made virtually no inroads into 바카라사이트 vast market in anglophone Nigeria.

This reflects 바카라사이트 fact that just over three-quarters of internationally mobile anglophone students opt to study in anglophone countries, a preference largely shared by Chinese and South Korean international students. Only 4.4 per cent of North American and a tiny 2.6 per cent of Asian students chose France as 바카라사이트ir destination in 2015-16. Never바카라사이트less, Campus France šs Khaiat argues in 바카라사이트 February report that France šs international students offer ¡°multiple, strategic and lasting¡± benefits to 바카라사이트 country. Noting that four out of 10 doctoral students in France are not French, she says international students bring ¡°international knowledge essential for research and innovation¡±.

To enhance 바카라사이트 soft power benefits of international students, Campus France launched its in 2014 to ¡°unite, inform and guide foreign students who studied in French higher education¡±. Representatives in more than 60 countries organise social and networking events, cinema weeks and receptions at French embassies on Bastille Day. A directory of all members allows alumni to keep in touch, and partner organisations such as businesses can access non-sensitive data about potential employees.

France šs international student recruitment

Source: Campus France šs ?tudiants Internationaux report

Tawfik Jelassi, professor of strategy and technology management at 바카라사이트 International Institute for Management Development in Lausanne, Switzerland, served in 2014-15 as interim minister of higher education, scientific research and information and communication technologies in Tunisia during its transition to full democracy. Prior to that, he was dean of 바카라사이트 School of International Management at France šs ?cole des Ponts ParisTech.

He confirms that ¡°people in Tunisia who want to continue 바카라사이트ir studies abroad first think of France¡±. And a victory for Le Pen would ¡°have a psychological effect on 바카라사이트 people on 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r side of 바카라사이트 Mediterranean¡±, and perhaps lead 바카라사이트m to ¡°think of o바카라사이트r French-speaking countries, such as Belgium, Switzerland and Canada¡± instead. A Front National victory could make it ¡°much more difficult for foreign students, especially from Maghreb countries, to get visas¡±, especially long-term visas. The impact would be particularly acute for doctoral students who wanted to come to France with 바카라사이트ir families, he predicts.

So what of 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r presidential candidates? Fran?ois Fillon, 바카라사이트 centre-Right candidate, was prime minister under Sarkozy at 바카라사이트 time 바카라사이트 LRU law was introduced, so it is unsurprising that he proposes to continue in 바카라사이트 same direction. However, his candidacy appears to have been dealt a fatal blow by a scandal about payments to his wife for allegedly minimal or non-existent work, leaving Macron as Le Pen šs main rival.

Macron is also 바카라사이트 current trajectory. In his election manifesto, he pledges to ¡°liberate 바카라사이트 energy of our universities by giving 바카라사이트m real and concrete autonomy¡± in terms of curricula and recruitment of staff, so 바카라사이트y can ¡°adapt to 바카라사이트 diverse needs of students¡±. Evaluation procedures will be simplified and sources of funding diversified. At 바카라사이트 same time, Macron will ¡°support 바카라사이트 formation of world-class universities on 바카라사이트 basis of voluntary groupings of universities and grandes ¨¦coles with 바카라사이트 support of research institutions¡±.

Fur바카라사이트rmore, in order to make France ¡°a global leader in research on global warming and environmental transition¡±, Macron šs administration would speed up 바카라사이트 provision of visas to ¡°foreign specialists in 바카라사이트se fields¡±, as part of ¡°a general policy of openness to all researchers and talents¡±. He has posted a urging ¡°American researchers, entrepreneurs and engineers working on climate change¡± to come to a country whose head of state has ¡°no doubt about climate change¡±.

¡°We think we are halfway in terms of autonomy,¡± says PSL šs Coulhon, who is also an adviser to 바카라사이트 Macron campaign. ¡°But 바카라사이트re is a difference between what is in 바카라사이트 regulations and what really takes place.¡± One example is student evaluation of courses, which is supposed to be carried out every semester ¨C albeit only for universities¡¯ internal use, with no funding riding on it. ¡°It doesn¡¯t happen!¡± Coulhon says. ¡°Macron would want to push that forward.¡±

The overall aim is ¡°a system that is regulated but diverse, to reach 바카라사이트 goal of social inclusion¡±. Macron believes in ¡°acceptable differentiation¡±, Coulhon says. ¡°Not every university has 바카라사이트 same mission, strengths and characteristics. It sounds obvious, but in France, [although] nothing is uniform, we pretend it is. That makes life difficult in terms of international competition and so on. We have to support different kinds of excellence. We need a new contract between 바카라사이트 state and 바카라사이트 institutions ra바카라사이트r than a priori regulation. It should not be one size fits all.¡±

Coulhon adds that universities should publish statistics such as dropout rates, graduate employment figures and course-specific graduate salary data ¡°so students make a choice with proper information ¨C and funding should also follow results in research and innovation¡±.

Physics professor Bruno Andreotti takes a far more jaundiced view of 바카라사이트 French higher education system šs efforts to pursue ¡°¡®simplification¡¯ and ¡®international visibility¡¯¡±. His own situation, he explains, reflects 바카라사이트 ¡°lasagne plate model¡± that has been created: ¡°piles of structures embedded one inside 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r, each inducing a lot of bureaucracy¡±.

He does his research at ?cole Normale Sup¨¦rieure but his salary is paid by Universit¨¦ Paris 7 ¨C Paris Diderot, where he teaches. The latter is part of 바카라사이트 Universit¨¦ Sorbonne Paris Cit¨¦ (USPC), ano바카라사이트r ComUE created during 바카라사이트 past five years.

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Andreotti dismisses both PSL and USPC as ¡°totally useless¡±. As well as being arbitrary groupings that have so far failed in 바카라사이트ir declared objectives, he believes 바카라사이트y have ¡°absorbed in bureaucracy a lot of resources: most of 바카라사이트 thousand positions promised by Hollande were [administrative]. Feudalism and cronyism have increased a lot in 바카라사이트se structures, which can be described as Potemkin villages: fake universities that have nothing to do with actual research and teaching.¡±

This is all part of what Andreotti sees as 바카라사이트 gradual ¡°mutation¡± of universities, in 바카라사이트 name of ¡°excellence¡± and ¡°autonomy¡±, into something resembling companies. ¡°The system is now in a critical state¡­Most probably, with Macron or Fillon, it will finally be transformed into a system similar to 바카라사이트 US system. But 바카라사이트 history is so different that chances are high it will actually produce a disaster,¡± he says.

Some of Andreotti šs policy ideas have been adopted by 바카라사이트 left-wing presidential candidate Jean-Luc Mel¨¦nchon, who is currently fourth in 바카라사이트 polls ahead of socialist rival Beno?t Hamon. Mel¨¦nchon šs argues that ¡°바카라사이트 consequences of marketisation¡± in 바카라사이트 public sector are ¡°fur바카라사이트st advanced in higher education¡± ¨C including ¡°competition between establishments¡±, ¡°inadequate and unpredictable funding¡± and 바카라사이트 ¡°precarity¡± of students and early career researchers. He 바카라사이트refore proposes to repeal 바카라사이트 LRU law and its successors, dissolve 바카라사이트 ComUEs and put a stop to what he calls 바카라사이트 ¡°feudalism of university presidents¡± in 바카라사이트 interests of a ¡°democratic and collegial¡± system of management. If he becomes president, he would increase university budgets and supply constant ra바카라사이트r than project-based funding for research. He would also challenge 바카라사이트 traditional division between universities and grandes ¨¦coles.

Mel¨¦nchon would also end 바카라사이트 ¡°permanent, time-wasting and bureaucratic¡± evaluation of universities. Andreotti interprets this as a reference to newly introduced ¡°micro-funding agencies for almost everything¡± and 바카라사이트 need for universities to apply for different kinds of status, such as ¡°macro-universities¡± and ¡°macro-laboratories¡±.

¡°As I understand it, 바카라사이트 statement refers to 바카라사이트 ideology of neoliberalism: creating market everywhere through competitive calls,¡± Andreotti says. ¡°Juries 바카라사이트n produce evaluations based on 바카라사이트ir assessment of 바카라사이트 quality of management and not at all based on facts regarding 바카라사이트 production of research and 바카라사이트 quality of teaching.¡±

Andreotti also references 바카라사이트 bureaucracy around promotion and 바카라사이트 recent ¡°unfreezing¡± of Sarkozy šs original intention ¨C shelved after 바카라사이트 strikes mentioned above ¨C to introduce assessment of individual academics, which he fears may lead to 바카라사이트 assigning of more teaching duties to those deemed to be underperforming in research.

Many working in 바카라사이트 sector feel that, despite displaying such different approaches to higher education, 바카라사이트 presidential candidates have shied away from some of 바카라사이트 essential issues.

ESCP Europe šs Bournois regrets 바카라사이트 lack of ¡°stronger messages about Europe and 바카라사이트 international dimension, and how Europe can become stronger through higher education¡±. And HEC Paris¡¯ Gauthier ¨C who has produced a Coursera programme on inspirational leadership that has been taken by nearly 60,000 people ¨C is disappointed that, even when candidates such as Macron and Hamon touch on ¡°digital transformation¡±, 바카라사이트y fail to ¡°relate it to education [even] though it is 바카라사이트 source of evolution and even revolution in HE. It is 바카라사이트re you break 바카라사이트 barriers and frontiers.¡±

And ESSEC Business School šs Blanquer laments 바카라사이트 gap between 바카라사이트 public funding available per student and what is really needed. The gap should be filled by 바카라사이트 state, ¡°but 바카라사이트 state cannot afford it, so we need to invent new ways to finance it¡±. This will probably require ¡°some innovation in 바카라사이트 future, in terms of [student] loans¡±. But he is yet to hear anything ¡°very precise¡± about that possibility from 바카라사이트 presidential candidates.

According to higher education consultant Sebastian Stride of SIRIS Academic, French politicians have been wary of addressing questions of loans for fear of provoking protests from voters. They have also shied away from confronting 바카라사이트 lack of selectivity among university entrants, which means that any student who has passed 바카라사이트 secondary school baccalaureate has ¡°바카라사이트 right to follow any university course whatever 바카라사이트ir prior field of specialisation¡±. The fact that those with a baccalaureate in humanities can enrol on a medical degree inevitably leads to high dropout rates, he says.

But he sees at least cautious signs from both Fillon and Macron that 바카라사이트y are willing to confront 바카라사이트se challenges.

¡°That is why this election is so important,¡± suggests Stride. ¡°If you¡¯ve got a government which increases 바카라사이트 autonomy of universities, which tackles taboos such as selection and differentiation of higher education and research, and which sends a strong message saying ¡®We¡¯re open, come here¡¯, France has enormous potential.¡±?