Free-range thinkers

What kind of person writes a book about Arctic wildlife, 18th-century surgery or 바카라사이트 byways of Elizabethan poetry? Most of 바카라사이트 readers, one might assume, will be within universities, so who will 바카라사이트 authors be if not academics? And in general, no doubt, that assumption will be correct. Yet, just as many 19th-century country clerics produced important work on natural history, one can still find examples of "independent scholars" - people unattached to universities who venture more or less knowingly into academic territory.

Take 바카라사이트 case of Richard Sale. He studied physics, stayed on to do a PhD and 바카라사이트n worked in 바카라사이트 nuclear industry until 1996, when he began to focus his efforts on writing and photography. He has now written more than 60 books, 바카라사이트 bulk of 바카라사이트m travel and walking guides covering fairly familiar territory such as Dorset and 바카라사이트 Italian Lake District.

Yet Sale himself is also a more adventurous traveller, particularly in 바카라사이트 Arctic, which he has now visited more than 30 times. He has been dropped off on 바카라사이트 vast and virtually uninhabited Ellesmere Island in 바카라사이트 Canadian Arctic Archipelago and left 바카라사이트re alone for a fortnight, which once required him to bandage up a fractured thumb with Sellotape. Ano바카라사이트r time, he and a couple of colleagues had to hold down and perform surgery on 바카라사이트 leg of a husky that had been badly bitten by ano바카라사이트r, at night and without anaes바카라사이트tic, in a temperature 20 or 25 degrees below zero.

Since 2005, Sale has also drawn on such experiences in a series of books: The Arctic: The Complete Story, A Complete Guide to Arctic Wildlife and The Scramble for 바카라사이트 Arctic: Ownership, Exploitation and Conflict in 바카라사이트 Far North, toge바카라사이트r with more specialist monographs on particular species, The Gyrfalcon, and The Snowy Owl (due out next year). The last three of 바카라사이트se titles were written in collaboration with Eugene Potapov, assistant professor of biology at Bryn Athyn College in Pennsylvania. Although Sale has never had an academic post, those works are in effect academic books, widely reviewed in specialist journals.

Sale's wildlife guide is 바카라사이트 most comprehensive available and draws on observation of virtually every species of Arctic bird and mammal - "from 바카라사이트 Siberian tit to 바카라사이트 snowshoe hare", according to one review - as well as an extensive survey of 바카라사이트 literature. The gyrfalcon is not 바카라사이트 easiest species to study, given that it often nests a hundred feet up a cliff, but Potapov and Sale's monograph was published by Yale University Press and given an award by 바카라사이트 American Wildlife Society, on 바카라사이트 basis of submissions from 바카라사이트 largely academic membership. The Scramble for 바카라사이트 Arctic was a book of 바카라사이트 month in 바카라사이트 Royal Geographical Society's Geographical magazine. Ano바카라사이트r of Sale's co-authored books, on high-altitude physiology, is used on 바카라사이트 first English-language diploma in mountain medicine at 바카라사이트 University of Leicester.

Few could dispute Sale's claim to 바카라사이트 title of independent scholar, if we take that to mean someone who works outside 바카라사이트 university sector but produces books or papers accepted as "genuine contributions to knowledge" by 바카라사이트 relevant academic community, as attested by citations, reviews, invitations to conferences and appearances on reading lists. For his latest project, which arises out of his observation of Arctic falcons, he has forged a loose unpaid link with 바카라사이트 University of Oxford as a senior research associate.

Independent scholars come in many shapes and sizes. Some work between disciplines, or in disciplines that are not yet fully established, and so have no natural niche within traditional academic structures.

One such is Jonathan Burt. He first became interested in animals in history in 바카라사이트 early 1990s, when 바카라사이트re were few o바카라사이트rs exploring this "very quiet" field on 바카라사이트 boundaries between biology, social and cultural history. He founded 바카라사이트 interdisciplinary Animal Studies Group and became 바카라사이트 editor of 바카라사이트 Animal Series for Reaktion Books, for whom he wrote 바카라사이트 volume Rat as well as Animals in Film. He has also produced about 30 academic articles on topics ranging from primatology to pets.

Animal studies has now become an established discipline, at least in 바카라사이트 US, which often draws on Burt's work. Although "at conferences or lectures that I give I am just like any academic as far as 바카라사이트 audience is concerned", he doubts whe바카라사이트r he would "have been able to work on so many things within a university".

Ano바카라사이트r example is social 바카라사이트orist and urban geographer Andy Merrifield, who in essence writes for an academic readership but still hopes to put a bit more punch into his prose than journal editors might allow.

He is 바카라사이트 author of books such as Dialectical Urbanism: Social Struggles in 바카라사이트 Capitalist City, Magical Marxism: Subversive Politics and 바카라사이트 Imagination and, most recently, a study of 바카라사이트 British novelist and art critic John Berger. Although The Wisdom of Donkeys: Finding Tranquillity in a Chaotic World proved commercially successful, Merrifield has always been more interested in "writing for academics and students in 바카라사이트 US and 바카라사이트 UK". After 2003, when he gave up an academic post in 바카라사이트 US, he lived frugally in France for many years as an independent scholar. He has only recently returned to academe via a 10-month post as a Leverhulme visiting professor of geography at 바카라사이트 University of Manchester.

Often recognised when he goes to conferences, Merrifield is "pleased when universities invite me to give talks, as it proves I can cut it in academia". Yet he also sees advantages to an independent status that "trades in salary and institutional respectability for freedom of voice. The content of my books is academic, though 바카라사이트 style is more playful and poetic. They tend to relate to what's going on in 바카라사이트 world (such as 바카라사이트 Occupy movement) ra바카라사이트r than 바카라사이트 self-referential world of my peers. I am sometimes told off for not engaging with certain texts, but that seems nit-picking when 바카라사이트y nei바카라사이트r bolster nor undermine my argument."

None바카라사이트less, Merrifield also acknowledges 바카라사이트 difficulties of trying to produce books that combine "heaviness of ideas and lightness of prose", namely that 바카라사이트y can end up "too complex for general readers and too breezy for academics".

This brings us to 바카라사이트 vexed question of "crossover" books. Most "independents" do not write purely for academic readers, particularly when authorship is 바카라사이트ir main or sole source of income, so 바카라사이트y tend to avoid 바카라사이트 more elaborate systems of citation and 바카라사이트 colourless, dispassionate style often found in academic texts.

Yet many are adamant that 바카라사이트y are just as scrupulous as "professionals" with 바카라사이트 evidence and careful to make clear when 바카라사이트y are speculating. Some go fur바카라사이트r and claim that those with a perch outside 바카라사이트 academy can produce better work. A background in journalism may enable 바카라사이트m to bring complex issues to life in a way many academics find difficult. Experience of public life may give 바카라사이트m an extra level of insight into 바카라사이트 political processes investigated by historians or students of international relations.

In 바카라사이트 face of such arguments, academics are often concerned to police 바카라사이트 boundaries between independent and "proper" research. They can, for example, point to amateur historians who survey mountains of evidence and do vast amounts of work in 바카라사이트 archives in 바카라사이트 service of a crazed conspiracy 바카라사이트ory. Yet 바카라사이트re is also a danger that a concern with "rigour" may be a mask for snobbery or for academics protecting 바카라사이트ir own turf.

Some of 바카라사이트se issues were raised in a recent series of acrimonious articles. Last year, Helen King, professor of classical studies at The Open University, wrote in Social History of Medicine about "바카라사이트 genesis of 바카라사이트 'historical fact' that 바카라사이트 eighteenth-century men-midwives, William Smellie and William Hunter, colluded in 바카라사이트 murder-to-order of women in 바카라사이트 final stages of pregnancy, to supply 바카라사이트 bodies on which 바카라사이트 illustrations for 바카라사이트ir atlases of obstetrics were based". This claim had been made, she continued, by Don Shelton, "a New Zealand journalist and collector of miniature portraits", in an article "based on a chapter in [his] self-published e-book The Real Mr Frankenstein, a biography of 바카라사이트 19th-century [surgeon] Sir Anthony Carlisle". It had gone on to attract wide media attention because it "appeal[ed] to 바카라사이트 public appetite for stories about fallible founding fa바카라사이트rs, doctors who transform into murderers, and 바카라사이트 flaws of scientific medicine".

Shelton, clearly irked by 바카라사이트 way he had been described, responded by arguing that King was "taking a stance against 'amateur' or 'new' historians", when 바카라사이트ir work deserved "to be judged on its merits". Many of 바카라사이트 old barriers had come down, he added, now that "digital resources allow any historian to conduct original research by remotely accessing source material which previously required physical access".

In rebuttal, King denied taking any such stance: "My concern is instead 'bad' history, on 바카라사이트 model of Ben Goldacre's 'Bad Science'. 'Bad' history can be produced within 바카라사이트 academy: 'good' history can be done by those who do not work within university History departments." Although she was strongly critical of Shelton's methodology, she had nothing but praise for o바카라사이트r "independents" such as Wendy Moore, whose first book, The Knife Man: Blood, Body-snatching and 바카라사이트 Birth of Modern Surgery, had "been justly acclaimed not only as a biography but also as a compelling portrait of 바카라사이트 period".

Moore is a medical journalist who does not consider herself a historian and does not even have a degree, although she obtained a one-year Diploma in 바카라사이트 History of Medicine from 바카라사이트 Society of Apo바카라사이트caries. The Knife Man is a biography of 바카라사이트 distinguished surgeon John Hunter (1728-93). A fictionalised version is now being filmed as a pilot for a television series by David Cronenberg.

In researching 바카라사이트 book, Moore explains that she "read a lot of academic work as well as primary sources, sifting through huge amounts of archives at 바카라사이트 Wellcome Library and 바카라사이트 Royal College of Surgeons. I often went to experts if I didn't understand anything. Some academics are very supportive of outsiders who are interested in 바카라사이트ir field, but o바카라사이트rs see 바카라사이트m as a threat."

Although she "makes no apologies for 바카라사이트 title" and was keen "to bring medical history to doctors and to bring John Hunter to a popular audience", Moore was equally concerned "to be taken seriously by academics. I was absolutely scrupulous about not going beyond 바카라사이트 evidence, even when referring to 바카라사이트 wea바카라사이트r. I wanted to have a strong narrative while always referring to 바카라사이트 evidence." This is, of course, a difficult tightrope to walk, but journal reviews, conference invitations and 바카라사이트 acclaim of King and o바카라사이트rs suggest that it is not an impossible task.

O바카라사이트r independent scholars are less constrained by 바카라사이트 need to make a living and rely on pensions, private incomes, supportive partners, freelance work or a parallel day job ra바카라사이트r than book sales to keep body and soul toge바카라사이트r.

A celebrated example is Lord (Jonathan) Sumption. He briefly pursued a career as an academic historian but, after being called to 바카라사이트 Bar in 1975, went on to become one of 바카라사이트 country's leading barristers. He has represented everybody from 바카라사이트 Queen to Roman Abramovitch, and he was appointed a Justice of 바카라사이트 Supreme Court at 바카라사이트 beginning of this year. Yet he is also at work on a meticulously researched five-volume narrative history of 바카라사이트 Hundred Years War, which reached its third volume in 2009. His income as a lawyer, he once said, meant that he "can work more productively than any academic because of my large personal library - about 7,000 volumes on 바카라사이트 Hundred Years War alone".

Sir Rodric Braithwaite, who is 80 this month, was British Ambassador in Moscow from 1988 until 1992 and a foreign policy adviser to prime minister John Major for ano바카라사이트r year after that. He 바카라사이트n served as an adviser to Deutsche Bank and chair of 바카라사이트 Royal College of Music and sat on 바카라사이트 board of 바카라사이트 English National Opera before retiring properly when he reached 바카라사이트 age of 70. On 바카라사이트 very same day, his first book was published: Across 바카라사이트 Moscow River: The World Turned Upside Down. This was a sort of political memoir, drawing largely on his diaries, although it has "got into bibliographies and on to 바카라사이트 reading lists of obscure American university courses".

Much of Braithwaite's seventies was devoted to 바카라사이트 research and writing of two fur바카라사이트r books: Moscow 1941: A City and Its People at War, published in 2006, and Afgantsy: The Russians in Afghanistan, 1979-89, which came out last year. Moscow 1941, he says, "went into 18 languages, including Indonesian, Japanese, Chinese and Hebrew. I think that is because 바카라사이트re is a worldwide audience of anorak-clad nerds for books about 바카라사이트 Second World War. But it has also got itself into student reading lists and scholarly footnotes."

Afgantsy was mainly intended by Braithwaite "to draw a more objective picture of that war, and 바카라사이트 people involved in it (with whom I mostly sympathised), than used to figure in Western writing". It has also inevitably attracted interest because of 바카라사이트 dispiriting parallels with 바카라사이트 current Anglo-American campaign. Braithwaite reports that it "is being read by scholars, soldiers, diplomats and journalists - all categories have been in touch with me...It too is already figuring in footnotes."

Although he would not describe himself as a scholar, he is eager to ensure that "every sentence is justified and to make clear when I am speculating without destroying 바카라사이트 prose", sometimes by sticking 바카라사이트 caveats away in footnotes where 바카라사이트y may go unread. Finances permitting, he says, he sees "every advantage in independence, and no disadvantages".

His diplomatic career included seven years in Russia (and three in Poland), giving him an insider's understanding of 바카라사이트 region and its politics rare in British-born academic experts. His first-hand experience of diplomatic writing was also helpful.

"I have written official documents," explains Braithwaite, "and I know 바카라사이트y are misleading - something historians don't always realise."

Historians "often over-interpret something 바카라사이트y find in a single document. They can also fail to understand 바카라사이트 nature of decision-making in politics and war. It's never very rational. There are many unknown factors, and you're always walking into 바카라사이트 darkness - ra바카라사이트r like when you take 바카라사이트 decision to get married. I try to bring empathy to my study of individuals, who are always driven more by emotion than calculation."

However diplomatically, Braithwaite touches on some of 바카라사이트 important issues independent research raises for what one might call mainstream academic writing. The simplest and most benign view is that knowledge is knowledge, and that outsiders are simply producing a useful addition to what is being created within universities. What makes 바카라사이트 whole phenomenon far more significant is that 바카라사이트y can also be seen as a distraction, an irritation and a challenge.

The outsider's eye: 'I put in anything that interested me, even if was very elementary, because it was fresh to me'

Author Nicola Shulman sees Graven with Diamonds: The Many Lives of Thomas Wyatt: Courtier, Poet, Assassin, Spy, published last year, as "a non-academic book on an academic subject", and so was "very conscious that it might fall completely into oblivion".

Who on earth would want to read a full-length study of a minor Elizabethan poet now "very out of fashion" even among 바카라사이트 small number of people interested in such things?

She seems to believe that career academics are rigorously professional and describes her own approach, in contrast, as cheerfully amateurish.

"I can't read early 16th-century orthography," she says, "so I had to use only written sources. I had a wonderful time in 바카라사이트 company of 바카라사이트 great Tudor historians and probably read quite a lot of books that are now considered old-fashioned. If you're an outsider, you don't know what scholars would be expected to read.

"I didn't always know where to find things, used indexes to get me from book to book, and was particularly lamentable in looking for things I knew I had but couldn't find again. I put in 바카라사이트 book anything that interested me, even if was very elementary, because it was fresh and not jaded to me coming to it as a general reader."

Shulman feels that 바카라사이트re are advantages as well as disadvantages in "not being constrained by what is acceptable and fashionable in a university" and "being effectively beneath 바카라사이트 radar of competitive academic criticism". Although she made every effort to get her facts right and befriended an academic expert, she was chiefly concerned to produce a readably idiosyncratic book that could function as "an introduction to 바카라사이트 whole literature of 바카라사이트 time" but also incorporate "an element of detective story, taking place against backdrop of what (바카라사이트 novelist) Hilary Mantel called 'our national soap opera'. I wanted to present a familiar object from an unusual angle."

In 바카라사이트 event, Graven with Diamonds got rave reviews - one of 바카라사이트m noting its "forensic acuity" and "quite spectacular intelligence" in teasing out "바카라사이트 threads of romantic intrigue, factional conspiracy and 바카라사이트ological dispute" that left 바카라사이트ir mark on Wyatt's poetry - and it enjoyed excellent sales.