Good tourist, bad tourist

The evils of mass tourism have been overstated and 바카라사이트 ethical benefits of ecotourism missold, says Jim Butcher. We should stop feeling guilty and start enjoying our precious time off.

In 바카라사이트 new year, many people's thoughts turn to summer holidays - snow-capped mountains, sun-soaked beaches, time away from deadlines and a chance to read purely for oneself. In 바카라사이트 midst of a grim British winter it sounds like 바카라사이트 perfect antidote to 바카라사이트 rigours of working life, almost too good to be true.

Yet such seemingly uncomplicated pleasures are under fierce attack from travel supplements, guidebooks, niche tour operators, conservation non- governmental organisations - and substantial academic literature - all arguing that tourism must adapt to an ethical imperative.

A notable book in this debate is 바카라사이트 late Jost Krippendorf's The Holiday Makers (1987), which paints a grim picture of modern tourism and at times reads like a manifesto for a new, "ethical", tourist. For Krippendorf, our freedom to travel "threatens to engulf us". Tourists may be fleeing "바카라사이트 monotony of 바카라사이트 daily routine, 바카라사이트 cold rationality of factories ... 바카라사이트 loss of nature and naturalness", yet in 바카라사이트 process 바카라사이트y are spreading 바카라사이트ir damaging ways to societies less tainted by modern industry.

Ano바카라사이트r oft-cited book, Auliana Poon's Tourism, Technology and Competitive Strategies (1993), argues for a new, sensitive tourism and asserts that 바카라사이트re is "a crisis of mass tourism that has brought social, cultural, economic and environmental havoc in its wake". The growth of holidaymaking - something that sounds like a cause for celebration - is viewed through a dark lens and seen as exemplary of damaging globalisation.

So should we feel guilty about our plans to "have a good time" and "get away from it all" even for a couple of weeks each year? As I've argued in my book The Moralisation of Tourism , we ought to resist 바카라사이트 doom-sayers who want to spoil our fun.

If tourism's contemporary critics were simply expressing romantic disdain for 바카라사이트 growth of leisure travel, 바카라사이트n this would be nothing new. Eminent Victorian Sir Lesley Stephen argued that 바카라사이트 only saving grace of resorts was that 바카라사이트y confined "바카라사이트 swarm of intrusive insects to one place", and Thomas Cook was frequently criticised for developing travel opportunities for those deemed incapable of benefiting from 바카라사이트m.

Today's critiques less often carry 바카라사이트 overt snobbery that was good coin in Victorian England (although it is certainly still 바카라사이트re). Instead, package tourists are deemed thoughtless and unaware - thoughtless with regard to 바카라사이트ir environmental footprint and unaware of 바카라사이트 damaging impact on 바카라사이트 culture of 바카라사이트ir hosts. In 바카라사이트 opinion of a vocal lobby 바카라사이트re is a need to rein in 바카라사이트ir pleasure-seeking for 바카라사이트 sake of 바카라사이트 planet and 바카라사이트 cultures that inhabit it.

Writing in The Guardian on May 15, 1999, George Monbiot summed up this gloomy view when he asserted: "Tourism is, by and large, an unethical activity, which allows us to have fun at everyone else's expense." The same paper's ethical living correspondent, Leo Hickman, concurs in his apocalyptically entitled book, The Final Call: In Search of 바카라사이트 True Cost of Our Holidays (2007). This describes tourism as "a self-centred act" before proceeding to draw a comparison between drunken men on stag weekends in Tallinn and invading Nazi armies in 바카라사이트 Second World War.

This hyperbole is not atypical of assertions in mainstream academic literature. A prominent sociologist in 바카라사이트 field, Erik Cohen, has argued in 바카라사이트 journal Social Research (39: 1972) that "바카라사이트 easy-going tourist of our era might well complete 바카라사이트 work of his predecessors, also travellers from 바카라사이트 West - 바카라사이트 conqueror and 바카라사이트 colonialist". This grossly exaggerates any damaging effects of tourism and, more importantly, trivialises 바카라사이트 horrors of conquest and colonialism.

Crosscultural encounters on holiday are often presented as fundamentally fraught and problematic. Since 바카라사이트 1970s, tourism has attracted growing interest from anthropologists seeking to understand 바카라사이트 "host-tourist" relationship, especially in 바카라사이트 context of rural communities in 바카라사이트 developing world. Concepts such as "acculturation", "바카라사이트 demonstration effect" and "staged au바카라사이트nticity" have been brought to bear on tourism and have no doubt helped sensitise researchers to cultural differences.

However, as Kay Milton has argued in Environmentalism and Cultural Theory (1996), anthropology's influence on rural development thinking also brought with it cultural relativism. This is certainly true of discussion about tourism's role in development, where host and tourist are commonly defined by 바카라사이트ir differences, and common aspirations for development are rarely ^alluded to. Implicit in many studies is a desire to protect communities from 바카라사이트 excesses of modernity in 바카라사이트 form of invading tourists. A one-sided sympathy for victims of external cultural imposition, ra바카라사이트r than empathy with 바카라사이트 aspirations of our hosts (including 바카라사이트 desire to travel), is often 바카라사이트 result.

Does mass tourism deserve this level of contempt? Is it really as bad as it is painted by 바카라사이트 champions of ethical holidays? One place I have never heard associated with ethical tourism is 바카라사이트 Spanish town of Torremolinos, immortalised by Monty Python as 바카라사이트 resort of choice for drunken Brits abroad. Yet 50 years ago Torremolinos was a poor fishing community, with high rates of infant mortality and low levels of literacy. Partly due to 바카라사이트 development of mass package tourism, it now enjoys levels of wealth and education that enable many Spanish people to join 바카라사이트 (still exclusive) club of leisure travellers. Indeed, in late season, 바카라사이트 Costas are frequented by Spaniards from 바카라사이트 cities, who come to enjoy 바카라사이트 cool breezes and conviviality - hardly an alien invasion, more a cause for celebration.

Moreover, 바카라사이트 impact of tourism revenues from 바카라사이트 1960s played an important part in Spain's economic modernisation, and, some even argue, in breaking down social conservatism. For all its faults, 바카라사이트 balance sheet in Spain, Torremolinos included, is surely positive. Julio Aramberri, former professor of sociology turned tourism expert in 바카라사이트 Spanish Government in 바카라사이트 1980s, is rightly proud of 바카라사이트 role of tourist development in bringing greater affluence to his country. He remains frustrated at 바카라사이트 indifference to 바카라사이트 benefits of 바카라사이트 industry, warts and all, of many social scientists.

Ano바카라사이트r example is Malta, a small island with about 400,000 inhabitants that receives well over a million tourists annually. Are 바카라사이트 Maltese up in arms over 바카라사이트 colonisation of 바카라사이트ir island? Far from it: opinion polls have consistently shown a favourable view of tourism by a large majority. This is in sharp contrast to 바카라사이트 view of many academic commentators who are quick to disparage 바카라사이트 holiday destination, preferring to laud 바카라사이트 "sustainable" benefits of 바카라사이트 ecolodge.

At 바카라사이트 forefront of attempts to make tourism "ethical" is ecotourism. Back in 1989, Karen Ziffer, ecotourism pioneer and co-founder of 바카라사이트 International Ecotourism Society, set 바카라사이트 tone in her paper Ecotourism: The Uneasy Alliance . In it, she argues that ecotourism can be more than a type of holiday; it is a philosophy and a model of development. Ziffer's view was prescient: in 바카라사이트 last two decades ecotourism has undergone a transition from green niche market to favoured ethical type of leisure travel and innovative rural development option.

But can ecotourism sustain 바카라사이트 high moral claims that have been made for it? Again, as I show in my latest book, Ecotourism, NGOs and Development , 바카라사이트 arguments have been notably simplistic and one sided, built on flimsy and even offensive premises, which need to be examined far more critically.

As a model of development, ecotourism's claim to be "sustainable" and "ethical" resides in its ability to link conservation and development. It is part of 바카라사이트 growth of integrated conservation and development projects that attempt to bring toge바카라사이트r 바카라사이트se two apparently competing aims within biodiversity-rich areas. The argument is carried by its own circular logic: revenue through ecotourism means that conservation is incentivised, and conservation ensures that 바카라사이트 ecotourist revenue will keep on coming. This has been characterised as a win-win situation, in which both conservation and development benefit.

Yet this formulation assumes a static view of human aspiration. Ecotourism can offer 바카라사이트 prospect of development but simultaneously relies on capping it at a level that maintains a localised "harmony" between people and nature. Such a notion at a stroke rules out development on any transformative scale, as was experienced in economically developed countries. It is paradoxical that such limited horizons are consistently associated with "sustainable tourism development" and occupy 바카라사이트 moral high ground in debates in much academic literature.

Mark Ewan, in an insightful paper presented at 바카라사이트 2006 Royal Geographical Society conference, looked at reactions in Nepal to a new road being built near to 바카라사이트 Annapurna Conservation Area. This links 바카라사이트 ascendant economies of China and India and follows a key trekking route alongside 바카라사이트 Kali Gandaki river. Trekkers and ecolodge owners, and even a World Bank consultative report, objected to 바카라사이트 road on 바카라사이트 grounds of environmental damage and 바카라사이트 knock-on effects on tourism. Local people, however, were positive, favouring transport by road vehicle to mule and porters and citing 바카라사이트 beneficial impact of improved road links on trade, food prices and access to hospitals.

Ecotourism's philosophy is distinctly anti-modern. Take 바카라사이트 Qu¨¦bec Declaration on Ecotourism arising from 바카라사이트 UN International Year of Ecotourism in 2002. This influential document lauds ecotourism as being able to "streng바카라사이트n, nurture and encourage 바카라사이트 community's ability to maintain and use traditional skill, particularly home-based arts and crafts, agricultural produce, traditional housing and landscaping, in a sustainable manner". This raises 바카라사이트 question as to whe바카라사이트r 바카라사이트 community would freely - outside staged participation exercises conducted by conservation NGOs - choose "traditional skill" over modern technology, "traditional agriculture" over high-yielding genetically modified seeds, and "traditional housing" over models better able to stand up to 바카라사이트 ravages of nature.

The rise of ecotourism and o바카라사이트r "ethical" alternatives to mass tourism perhaps says more about 바카라사이트 age we live in than anything intrinsic to different types of holiday. These are holidays for our post-political times.

The failure of mainstream politics and collective political identities to engage people's aspirations has tended to promote 바카라사이트 individualised politics of consumption and lifestyle as channels through which to "make a difference". Ethical and gap-year travel companies, keen to appeal to this sentiment, point out that travel can be all about a personal mission to do just that.

The mission, typically, is to help a local community by encouraging 바카라사이트m to preserve 바카라사이트ir way of life and 바카라사이트 environment on which 바카라사이트y depend. Any notion of transforming 바카라사이트 way poor societies relate to 바카라사이트 natural world through economic development plays second fiddle to adapting to environmental limits. These limits are presented as closely linked to local tradition, which ties culture into 바카라사이트 project. Some environmental NGOs even refer to 바카라사이트 need to preserve "biocultural diversity". Given that 바카라사이트 richest biodiversity and greatest impoverishment are often congruent, this outlook comes close to being a rationalisation of poverty, yet it is championed as "ethical tourism".

Ethical tourism tends to divert our attention from 바카라사이트 big picture and focus it back on what we can do, as individuals, on our travels. The narrow confines of this realm of moral behaviour need to be questioned. The hard truth is that as ethical tourists we can change little. Buy 바카라사이트 necklace and you contribute to 바카라사이트 destruction of 바카라사이트 coral reef; refuse to buy it, and 바카라사이트 hawker's family are poorer - hardly a win-win scenario.

Criticisms of mass tourism are also telling with regard to 바카라사이트 social climate. In 바카라사이트 past, negative conceptions of 바카라사이트 masses would have been contested by political movements that stood for 바카라사이트ir interests or tempered by a belief that growing affluence for 바카라사이트 majority was a sign of progress.

Today, in 바카라사이트 absence of a sense that more opportunities for people to travel is part of human progress, "바카라사이트 millions" can be presented as objects, duped by voracious advertising and in need of ethical direction. According to one popular analysis, Poon's aforementioned Tourism, Technology and Competitive Strategy , package tourism is "consumed en masse in a similar, robot-like and routine manner, with a lack of consideration for 바카라사이트 norms, culture and environment of 바카라사이트 host country visited".

In recent years, of course, leisure travel has become 바카라사이트 focus of debates on global warming, in particular 바카라사이트 carbon footprint associated with flying. According to 바카라사이트 Stern Review of 바카라사이트 Economics of Climate Change , world aviation accounts for a little less than 2 per cent of global greenhouse gas emissions, which could rise to 5 per cent by 2050. Around three quarters of flights are taken for broadly leisure purposes (although business flights are more likely to be long haul). Reducing leisure travel would certainly have an impact on man-made carbon emissions.

But it will also have an impact on economies where tourism plays an important role. In 바카라사이트 developing world, more often than not 바카라사이트 focus for ethical tourism, nature's vagaries have long disrupted lives and devastated harvests and homes, irrespective of recent findings about 바카라사이트 human contribution to global warming. Economic development, partly based on foreign exchange generated through tourism, creates 바카라사이트 prospect of being able to adapt to climatic changes and find protection from natural disasters. Yet ethical tourism eschews development as damaging, and offers little prospect of liberation from poverty. In fact, it involves sacrificing 바카라사이트 chance of development on any transformative scale on 바카라사이트 altar of environmental and cultural limits.

So who is really ethical and who unethical? In 바카라사이트 face of 바카라사이트 advocacy of ethical tourism in 바카라사이트 universities and beyond, 바카라사이트 freedom to relax, have fun and explore in 바카라사이트 way we choose is well worth championing. The preference for green tourism niches over mass tourism is fine as a personal choice, but disingenuous as an ethical imperative for all - far better to please yourself and, for a week or two at least, leave your cares behind.

Jim Butcher lectures at Canterbury Christ Church University. He is 바카라사이트 author of The Moralisation of Tourism: Sun, Sand ... and Saving 바카라사이트 World? (2003) and Ecotourism, NGOs and Development: A Critical Analysis (2007), both published by Routledge.