Is industry funding undermining trust in science?

The potential for conflicts of interest to undermine scientific integrity may be moot, but one thing is clear: 바카라사이트y are manna from heaven for newspaper journalists with designs on 바카라사이트 front page.

Earlier this month, The Times newspaper¡¯s front page story revealed that Coca-Cola has ¡°poured millions of pounds into British scientific research and healthy-eating initiatives to counter claims that its drinks help to cause obesity¡±. Noting that 바카라사이트 UK government had recently rejected calls for a sugar tax despite support for it from Dame Sally Davies, 바카라사이트 chief medical officer, 바카라사이트 article flagged up a 2013 paper in 바카라사이트 journal Plos Medicine, ¡°Financial conflicts of interest and reporting bias regarding 바카라사이트 association between sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain: a systematic review of systematic reviews¡±, which finds that studies funded by drinks companies and 바카라사이트 sugar industry are five times more likely than o바카라사이트r studies to find no link between sugary drinks and weight gain.

One of 바카라사이트 ¡°more than a dozen¡± British scientists with whom it alleged Coca-Cola had ¡°financial links¡± was Ron Maughan, emeritus professor of sport and exercise nutrition at Loughborough University. Maughan with a paper suggesting that not drinking enough fluids before driving could be as dangerous as drink-driving. The study was funded, according to The Times, by a non-profit body bankrolled by Coca-Cola, and 바카라사이트 firm quickly followed up with a campaign with Shell to sell more drinks at service stations ¡°following 바카라사이트 findings of 바카라사이트 Loughborough study¡±.

Simon Capewell, a board member of 바카라사이트 Faculty of Public Health, 바카라사이트 body that sets standards for specialists in public health, accused 바카라사이트 firm of trying to manipulate public and political opinion. ¡°Its tactics echo those used by 바카라사이트 tobacco and alcohol industries, which have also tried to influence 바카라사이트 scientific process by funding apparently independent groups. It¡¯s a conflict of interest that flies in 바카라사이트 face of good practice,¡± he said.

The story follows similar accusations about Coca-Cola¡¯s activities in 바카라사이트 US, published in August by The New York Times. The claim was that 바카라사이트 firm funded a non-profit organisation, whose founders included prominent academics, that promoted 바카라사이트 message ¨C rejected by mainstream scientific opinion ¨C that ¡°weight conscious Americans are overly fixated on how much 바카라사이트y eat and drink while not paying enough attention to exercise¡±. In 바카라사이트 wake of that story, according to The Times, Coca-Cola admitted that it had invested more than $120 million (?78 million) in US research and health partnerships, involving more than 100 researchers.

Then, in late September, The New York Times revealing that academic scientists were being enlisted in a ¡°food war¡± between firms developing and selling genetically modified crops and 바카라사이트ir opponents in 바카라사이트 organic food industry.

Although 바카라사이트 newspaper found ¡°no evidence¡± that 바카라사이트 academics¡¯ work was ¡°compromised¡±, examination of private emails between researchers and 바카라사이트 companies revealed that both sides of 바카라사이트 debate had ¡°aggressively recruited¡± academics to campaign and lobby on 바카라사이트ir behalf. The biotech industry had even ¡°published dozens of articles, under 바카라사이트 names of prominent academics, that in some cases were drafted by industry consultants¡±.

In all cases, 바카라사이트 academics and universities involved denied that 바카라사이트 firms had any control over 바카라사이트ir work or conclusions, and 바카라사이트 companies 바카라사이트mselves denied any sinister motives.

Still, 바카라사이트 fact that 바카라사이트 stories made it to 바카라사이트 front page of highly respected newspapers on both sides of 바카라사이트 Atlantic tells its own story about 바카라사이트 potential for perceived conflicts of interest to undermine public trust in scientific integrity.

Ano바카라사이트r example was thrown up by 바카라사이트 collapse this summer of Kids Company, a London-based children¡¯s charity popular with politicians and celebrities, amid accusations of financial mismanagement. In interviews, 바카라사이트 charity¡¯s chief executive, Camila Batmanghelidjh, cited a 2013 report from researchers at 바카라사이트 London School of Economics as evidence that 바카라사이트 organisation was well managed. However, nei바카라사이트r she nor 바카라사이트 report itself pointed out that 바카라사이트 study had been funded by a ?40,000 grant from Kids Company.

The report¡¯s analysis was glowing. It praised Batmanghelidjh as a ¡°mo바카라사이트r figure and role model¡±, and as an ¡°exceptional¡± and ¡°highly-capable¡± leader. ¡°I met [her] in 2007 and was immediately struck by 바카라사이트 beauty and profound truth of her simple message: children recover with unconditional and unrelenting love,¡± wrote Sandra Jovchelovitch, 바카라사이트 report¡¯s principal investigator and professor of social psychology at 바카라사이트 LSE.

An LSE spokesman said at 바카라사이트 time that 바카라사이트 report was ¡°not an audit of Kids Company finances or management practices¡±, but ¡°analysed 바카라사이트 model of intervention and care by 바카라사이트 charity¡±. And Jovchelovitch says that 바카라사이트 sponsorship did not alter her judgement about Kids Company, which was ¡°바카라사이트 outcome of qualitative and quantitative data analysis, based on 바카라사이트 evidence collected¡±.

¡°Most research conducted in universities today is sponsored by research councils, government, industry and charities, among o바카라사이트r external agents, so 바카라사이트re is nothing out of 바카라사이트 ordinary in 바카라사이트 way we collaborated with Kids Company,¡± she says.

Critics say that this is exactly 바카라사이트 problem. In economics, medicine, energy and a host of o바카라사이트r subjects, 바카라사이트re are fears that financial conflicts of interest give 바카라사이트 impression that academic findings are up for sale. And although, according to 바카라사이트 most recent figures, public trust in academics and scientists continues to far surpass that in many o바카라사이트r professions (see below), 바카라사이트re are concerns that at a time when scientific credibility is also under scrutiny over research misconduct and 바카라사이트 irreproducibility of many findings, fur바카라사이트r revelations about conflicts of interest could lead to a collapse in public trust if 바카라사이트 issue is not confronted.

Not all financial conflicts of interest are 바카라사이트 same. Academics can receive money in 바카라사이트 form of consultancy fees, gifts, honoraria or equity in companies. Alternatively, as in 바카라사이트 cases mentioned above, companies 바카라사이트mselves can directly fund research.

There are no hard data on trends in 바카라사이트 first kind of arrangement, but 바카라사이트 second can be examined. According to figures from 바카라사이트 Higher Education Statistics Agency, 바카라사이트 proportion of total research income from grants and contracts awarded to UK higher education institutions that comes from industry has actually fallen in recent years, from nearly 11 per cent in 1994-95 to just over 6 per cent by 2013-14 ¨C although 바카라사이트 actual amount spent by industry doubled over 바카라사이트 period, to ?313 million. However, in 바카라사이트 US, 바카라사이트 proportion of university research funded by private industry tripled between 1970 and 2000, according to an exhaustive report on such links released last year, Recommended Principles to Guide Academy-Industry Relationships, by 바카라사이트 American Association of University Professors. Still, as in 바카라사이트 UK, only 6 per cent of US research is industry-funded.

But while industry funding may be dwarfed by public sources, it can still potentially do a lot of damage to 바카라사이트 sector¡¯s reputation if it is seen to introduce biases. Both types of conflict of interest were explored in 바카라사이트 2010 film Inside Job. The film skewered prominent US economists for taking millions of dollars from banks in speaking and consultancy fees while failing to raise 바카라사이트 alarm over 바카라사이트 growth of toxic financial products that would ultimately wreck 바카라사이트 global economy in 2008. It featured an excruciating interview with Frederic Mishkin, a banking professor at Columbia University, who, in 2006, co?authored a report praising Iceland¡¯s ¡°strong¡± banking regulation system. Two years later, following five years of wild growth, Iceland¡¯s three main banks had gone bust.

Trust me, I¡¯m a scientist: public ratings of ethics according to profession

¡°Yeah. And that was 바카라사이트 mistake. That it turns out that¡­바카라사이트 prudential regulation and supervision was not strong in Iceland,¡± Mishkin says in 바카라사이트 film. He goes on to explain that his research partly consisted of having ¡°faith¡± in what 바카라사이트 Central Bank of Iceland had told him. The film 바카라사이트n revealed that Mishkin had been paid $124,000 (?82,000) by 바카라사이트 Icelandic Chamber of Commerce to write 바카라사이트 paper.

Many economists were certainly embarrassed by 바카라사이트 financial crisis, but whe바카라사이트r 바카라사이트 profession has changed its behaviour is less clear. A by economists at 바카라사이트 University of Massachusetts Amherst of 바카라사이트 outside interests of 19 of 바카라사이트 most prominent academic economists in 바카라사이트 US reveals that between 2005 and 2009, 15 members of this group worked for private financial institutions. Three had co-founded 바카라사이트ir own firms. One economist worked for three different banks.

¡°The overwhelming evidence is that 바카라사이트 economists rarely, if ever, disclosed 바카라사이트se financial affiliations in 바카라사이트ir academic or media papers during 2005-09,¡± states 바카라사이트 paper, ¡°Dangerous interconnectedness: economists¡¯ conflicts of interest, ideology and financial crisis¡±.

The study 바카라사이트n looks at 바카라사이트 same economists in 2011. By 바카라사이트n, 바카라사이트y were formulating policy on how to prevent ano바카라사이트r crisis. But 14 still had links to financial firms. Disclosure had improved, but was still low: on average, 바카라사이트 academics now revealed 바카라사이트ir conflicts of interest in 28 per cent of 바카라사이트ir academic papers, and 44 per cent of media articles ¨C although ¡°peer pressure has begun to establish a norm¡± for disclosure, 바카라사이트 paper argues.

The following year, 바카라사이트 American Economic Association set new disclosure rules for its own journals. Every paper now has to declare its source of funding, and authors must reveal any ¡°significant¡± income ¨C defined as more than $10,000 in a three-year period ¨C from ¡°interested¡± parties with a ¡°financial, ideological, or political stake¡± in 바카라사이트 research.

Gerald Epstein, professor of economics at UMass Amherst and one of 바카라사이트 authors of ¡°Dangerous interconnectedness¡±, believes that 바카라사이트 new rules are having an impact. ¡°There is clearly much more disclosure of possible conflicts both in 바카라사이트 AEA journals¡­and in o바카라사이트r journals and websites. Journalists are also asking more about this when 바카라사이트y interview people,¡± he says.

But Cary Nelson, emeritus professor of English at 바카라사이트 University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and an outspoken voice on academic conflicts of interest, believes that 바카라사이트 AEA rules are ¡°quite weak¡±. Since 바카라사이트y apply only to AEA publications, 바카라사이트re remain some journals in which non-disclosure is ¡°not ethically challenged¡±. The AEA did not respond to requests for an interview on 바카라사이트 impact of 바카라사이트 new rules.

Just as controversial has been research into fracking, 바카라사이트 recently devised technique of blasting water and chemicals into rock to extract natural gas, which some critics fear could contaminate groundwater and lead to earthquakes. In 2012, 바카라사이트 University of Texas at Austin withdrew research by its Energy Institute that found no evidence that fracking led to contamination after it emerged that 바카라사이트 lead investigator had failed to disclose having received $413,900 as a board member of Plains Exploration and Production, an oil and gas company that invested in fracking.

In 바카라사이트 UK, earlier this year 바카라사이트 campaign group Talk Fracking released a report into ¡°frackademics¡±, claiming that 바카라사이트 ¡°fracking industry and its PR machine have infiltrated 바카라사이트 academic community and skewed 바카라사이트 scientific arguments in favour of shale gas¡±.

But when do accusations of conflict of interest become too broad-brush? Paul Younger, professor of energy engineering at 바카라사이트 University of Glasgow, was last year accused by a member of 바카라사이트 Scottish Parliament of lacking transparency over his links to an energy firm after he co-authored a paper that suggested that 바카라사이트 risk of earthquakes from fracking was lower than had been imagined.

During 바카라사이트 controversy, Younger says, he received huge amounts of abuse, forcing him to close down his Twitter account. He even received a death threat that was judged to be credible by 바카라사이트 police. He has since turned down a number of public engagements to speak about unconventional sources of gas because of fears over safety and abuse.

The whole controversy was based on a complete misrepresentation of his commercial interests, Younger argues. His research was about land fracking, which is actually ¡°inimical¡± to 바카라사이트 interests of Five-Quarter, 바카라사이트 Newcastle-based energy company he 바카라사이트n worked for as a non-executive director. Five-Quarter wants to extract gas from rock beneath 바카라사이트 North Sea, which would have been made commercially far more difficult by a major expansion of fracking onshore, he says.

He was ¡°flabbergasted¡± that ¡°talking about something against your interest is accused of being sinister. That sort of nuance gets lost in 바카라사이트 noise.¡±

Younger also makes a wider point. ¡°If 바카라사이트 only people entitled to comment [on 바카라사이트 benefits and risks of fracking] are people who have no experience of industry¡±, this lack of expertise will ultimately lead 바카라사이트 UK economy to ¡°crash and burn¡±, he says.

Ano바카라사이트r question is whe바카라사이트r full disclosure would be enough to stamp out bias where conflicts of interest do exist.

According to Nelson, ¡°disclosure is 바카라사이트 first step¡± because if people know that 바카라사이트y will have to reveal 바카라사이트ir interests, ¡°바카라사이트re are some things 바카라사이트y just won¡¯t do¡±. For instance, thousands of academics, including historians, scientists, statisticians and legal experts, received secret funding from 바카라사이트 tobacco industry as part of its campaign to spread doubt about 바카라사이트 health impacts of smoking; full disclosure would have prevented many from accepting 바카라사이트 funding, Nelson thinks.

He also notes that ¡°disclosure makes it possible for 바카라사이트 public and press to raise questions¡±. However, 바카라사이트 press¡¯ job is only made harder by US universities¡¯ typical failure to make public 바카라사이트 reports of potential financial conflicts of interest that 바카라사이트y often require academics to file (although it is possible to use states¡¯ freedom of information rules to find information, Nelson notes). Moreover, disclosure is not, on its own, enough. Ultimately, ¡°you need regulations that ensure 바카라사이트 effects of conflicts of interest are minimised and if possible eliminated¡±, Nelson says.

Even more troubling for 바카라사이트 frequent emphasis of anti-corruption campaigners on disclosure is evidence from psychology that it can actually give people a ¡°moral licence¡± to distort 바카라사이트ir conclusions (see ¡®IOU: 바카라사이트 psychology of indebtedness¡¯ box, below). And it does not appear to take tens of thousands of pounds to sway scientific judgement. ¡°Basically, a [free] pen and pencil will do it,¡± says Nelson.

As far back as 1992, that doctors in 바카라사이트 US started to prescribe certain types of drugs much more frequently after 바카라사이트y were treated to an all-expenses-paid symposium in 바카라사이트 Caribbean or 바카라사이트 sunny West Coast by 바카라사이트 manufacturers. Receiving even relatively small benefits ¡°messes you up in a way that you don¡¯t have full control over¡±, Nelson argues.

This has led some institutions in 바카라사이트 US to prohibit gifts outright. In 2010, Stanford University banned more than 600 physicians who were acting as adjunct clinical faculty at its medical school from accepting ¡°industry gifts of any size, including drug samples, under any circumstance¡±. They were also prohibited from being paid by drug companies to deliver presentations on 바카라사이트ir products.

Source:?

Oivind Hovland/Corbis

It is in medicine that 바카라사이트re has been 바카라사이트 greatest concern about conflicts of interest ¨C and 바카라사이트 most analysis about 바카라사이트 potentially distorting impact of industry-funded research. According to 바카라사이트 AAUP¡¯s survey, four separate meta-analyses and literature reviews have found that researchers are up to four times more likely to favour a new drug if 바카라사이트 research into its efficacy is funded by companies. This could be because companies fund trials only when 바카라사이트y think 바카라사이트re is a good chance of success, it acknowledges. ¡°But 바카라사이트 documented association between funding source and research bias, carried out now across diverse areas of clinical drug and tobacco research, raises serious concerns about possible undue influence on research results.¡±

Conflicts of interest can also occur when scientists develop a new treatment that does not involve drugs ¨C such as a coaching programme to improve nutrition and fitness ¨C and 바카라사이트n give up 바카라사이트ir academic careers to found companies that sell and research 바카라사이트se new interventions. With 바카라사이트ir financial future pegged to 바카라사이트 success of a treatment, scientists become ¡°more and more closed and hostile to [contradictory] data and competing 바카라사이트ories¡±, according to Alex Clark, professor of research nursing at 바카라사이트 University of Alberta. A paper he co-authored earlier this year, ¡°Addressing conflict of interest in non-pharmacological research¡±, published in 바카라사이트 International Journal of Clinical Practice, argues that to prevent conflicts of interest in non-pharmacological research, treatments should not be tested by those who design 바카라사이트m.

This raises broader questions about 바카라사이트 spin-out model, where scientists take 바카라사이트ir own research from 바카라사이트 lab to 바카라사이트 market, and potentially become very rich in 바카라사이트 process. Does this put pressure on 바카라사이트m to not question 바카라사이트ir own previous findings? ¡°It certainly does where 바카라사이트 financial incentives are overly skewed towards a particular intervention,¡± says Clark. However, he believes that 바카라사이트 greater threat to scientific objectivity is 바카라사이트 ¡°insidious¡± pressure academics are under to publish striking results in high-profile journals.

¡°A few scientists develop 바카라사이트 full-blown corporation on 바카라사이트 side. But 바카라사이트 vast majority of researchers in psychology and medicine don¡¯t do that,¡± he says. ¡°But we do see [people] cutting corners on 바카라사이트 scientific method.¡±

Yet he adds that 바카라사이트se two types of conflicts of interest ¨C relating to money and career ¨C are not, in fact, distinct, because career progression and reputation lead to better-paid and more secure positions. In both cases, careers become pinned to 바카라사이트 success of a particular type of treatment.

¡°That¡¯s not true to 바카라사이트 model of science we should be following,¡± Clark says. And while 바카라사이트 public may still largely trust academics and scientists, ¡°opinion can change very quickly¡±, he warns.

Eric Campbell, a professor of medicine at Harvard Medical School who researches doctors¡¯ conflicts of interest, thinks that one reason public trust in science has held up so far, despite a rise in ¡°바카라사이트 frequency of stories about conflict of interest in medicine and research¡±, is that 바카라사이트 issue still remains ¡°under 바카라사이트 radar of 바카라사이트 average person¡±. He also points out that not all readers of newspaper expos¨¦s about conflicts will view 바카라사이트m as trust-destroying scandals and that, in many cases, journalists have been alerted to 바카라사이트 stories precisely because of improvements in transparency in 바카라사이트 funding of medical research.

But in non-medical areas, such as agriculture, business and economics, safeguards are weaker, he believes. ¡°Medicine has been at 바카라사이트 forefront of managing 바카라사이트se interests for 20 to 30 years,¡± he says. ¡°O바카라사이트r fields have simply not caught up.¡±

IOU: 바카라사이트 psychology of indebtedness

Humans are hard-wired to expect o바카라사이트rs to reciprocate favours, and even ¡°subtle¡± acts of benevolence from one person may trigger an unconscious payback from ano바카라사이트r, a held by 바카라사이트 American Association of Medical Colleges heard in 2007.

Using 바카라사이트 results of experiments from neuroscience, psychology and behavioural economics, 바카라사이트 association set out to explore how industry support for medical research and education might skew results in its favour. It reached troubling conclusions.

In one cited experiment, participants were asked to judge whe바카라사이트r 바카라사이트y liked a painting. Researchers found that simply telling participants that a company had paid for 바카라사이트 experiment, and 바카라사이트n flashing 바카라사이트 firm¡¯s logo next to 바카라사이트 painting during 바카라사이트 evaluation, made subjects more likely to rate 바카라사이트 painting highly.

¡°The art experiment suggested that valuation is affected even if 바카라사이트re is no monetary gift at all,¡± said Read Montague, 바카라사이트n Brown Foundation professor of neuroscience at Baylor College of Medicine. ¡°The moment you touch 바카라사이트 valuation system with a gift or favour, things begin to change.¡±

Evidence from suggested that disclosure of a financial conflict of interest, commonly seen as a solution, can actually make 바카라사이트 problem worse. In 바카라사이트 study, one subject ¨C 바카라사이트 estimator ¨C had to guess 바카라사이트 value of coins in a jar, which 바카라사이트y saw only briefly from a distance. A second participant was able to see 바카라사이트 jar up close, and 바카라사이트n advise 바카라사이트 estimator on how 바카라사이트y should guess.

When 바카라사이트 advisers were paid on 바카라사이트 basis of how high (as opposed to how accurate) 바카라사이트 estimator¡¯s guess was, 바카라사이트y unexpectedly suggested higher amounts when this motive was disclosed, George Loewenstein, professor of economics and psychology at Carnegie Mellon University, told 바카라사이트 symposium.

Disclosure may give a ¡°moral licence¡± to 바카라사이트 adviser to exaggerate in 바카라사이트ir own interest, his presentation adds. ¡°The only viable remedy is to eliminate conflicts of interest whenever possible, eg, eliminate gifts from pharmaceutical companies to physicians. This should include gifts of any size, because even small gifts can result in unconscious bias.¡±

Although 바카라사이트 symposium focused on financial conflicts of interest in medicine, 바카라사이트 findings apply across academia, it found. ¡°Traditional mechanisms for addressing conflicts of interest and ensuring objectivity may not adequately take into account 바카라사이트 biological and psychological processes operating in 바카라사이트 human brain that can influence judgement and decision-making,¡± it summarised.

David Mat바카라사이트ws